Agroforestry Contributions to Urban River Rehabilitation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. What Are the Main Problems of Water Bodies and Rivers in Cities?
- Water availability. According to the United Nations [43], one in three people do not have access to safe drinking water, and 60% of people lack access to safely managed sanitation facilities. In cities in Africa, water availability decreases as we move away from city centers; in other regions, such as Asia, cities have expanded over areas of importance for water access [44].
- Water body pollution by direct and diffuse sources [45,46]. Pollutants discharged into water bodies in urban areas represent up to 80% of wastewater [46]. Every day, almost 1000 children die from preventable diarrheal diseases related to water and sanitation. These waters also cause diseases such as cholera and schistosomiasis [47].
- Loss of habitat and biodiversity in riparian and aquatic environments [48]. Urban development and channelization of rivers have led to the reduction of riparian vegetation, which affects the water cycle by reducing groundwater recharge, impacting water availability and soil stability (subsidence) [3,11]. Loss of infiltration into groundwater decreases storage, increasing runoff and the speed of stormwater discharges. It also increases stream erosion, flooding, and the concentration and number of pollutants in stormwater [3,49,50].
- Loss of the natural pattern of hydromorphology and connectivity of the river due to hydraulic maneuvers [3,49,50,51]. The loss of wild river vegetation is one of the impacts of urbanization on river hydromorphology [52]. The construction of impermeable surfaces changes the hydrology of the basin, the river flow, and sediment mechanisms, as well as the movement of organisms, which restricts the dynamics of the rivers [53,54,55]. Hydraulic maneuvers to improve navigation or prevent flooding have also modified the connection of rivers with cities and their citizens [14,17,52,53,55,56].
- Floods [14,56,57,58,59] Flooding in urban areas is caused mainly by a reduction in the infiltration capacity of soils in urban areas [14] due to the construction of impervious surfaces [53] and the consequent increase in the amount of runoff [34,35], as well as deforestation and land-use changes upstream [60]. Approximately 70% of all deaths related to natural disasters in 2018 came from water-related disasters such as floods [43]. In 2050, the number of people at risk of flooding will increase to 1.6 billion in cities [58].
- Loss of water bodies and green areas in cities [61] and the degradation of public and recreational spaces connected to water bodies (waterscapes) [41,61,62]. In most of the world’s cities, the public open spaces or urban green areas that are available to the general population are small and highly visited, evidencing a significant need for open (green) spaces [61,63]. However, concerns such as litter, pollution, water and river flow safety, and insecurity (crime) influence people’s perception of urban rivers. They can be determinant in the acceptance of river rehabilitation projects [41,64] and impact how people access and use these spaces.
- Land subsidence [65] is becoming a common problem in many cities worldwide [66,67,68]. It is “a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface due to removal or displacement of subsurface earth materials,” [65] with underground water extraction being one of the leading causes. In addition to the damage to buildings and constructed capital, one of the most pressing problems is the compaction of aquifers to store water [69] which impacts urban water availability.
- Marginalized and poverty-stricken areas along rivers [64]. Riverbanks are diverse areas where we can find high real estate value as well as places of great marginality and abandonment. Certain spatial conditions may be a consequence of the lack of government attention to these marginalized areas [64]. These conditions affect access to and use of these spaces and their connection to other areas of social and ecological importance in the cities.
- Low potential for food production in connection with urban water bodies [70,71]. Farmers use approximately 70% of all water extracted from rivers, lakes, and aquifers for irrigation [43]. Thebo et al. [71] found that 60% of irrigated cropland and 35% of rain-fed cropland are within a 20 km radius of an urban area globally. However, food production in urban areas poses health risks due to high contamination levels, which has led to a ban on food production in cities such as Sydney [46,72]. Regardless, agricultural practices are typical along riverbanks and floodplains in towns worldwide [72,73,74,75]. See Figure 2 for a representation of the problems described and the processes they impact.
3.2. Experiences in the Rehabilitation of Urban Rivers
3.2.1. Improve Water Quality, Access, and Availability
3.2.2. Restore River Hydromorphology and Connectivity
3.2.3. Restore Riparian and Aquatic Habitats: Flora, Fauna, and Microorganisms
3.2.4. Create Local River Cultures and Social Cohesion
3.2.5. Guarantee Food Production
3.2.6. Impact on Public Policies
3.2.7. Rehabilitate Local Economies and Integrate the Urban Landscape
3.2.8. Create Recreational Spaces and Contribute to Physical and Mental Health
4. Conclusions: The Contributions of Agroforestry to Urban River Rehabilitation Experiences
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Specific Processes and Associated Concepts | Actions (Practices) |
---|---|
Improve water quality, access, and availability | Aquatic garden Biofiltration “Retrofits” (sidewalk drains to capture rainwater) Construction of marginal drainage for domestic wastewaterConstruction of reservoirs Installation of ultraviolet light treatment plants Permeable pavement Rainwater harvesting Solid waste cleanup Sustainable urban drainage systems |
Restore river hydromorphology and connectivity | “Daylighting” streams and rivers Desilting Floodplain restoration Gabion dams Green areas for water management Hedgerow planting and transplanting J-stone paddles Logs to stabilize banks Reconstruction of meanders Re-establishment of connections between streams Removal of concrete barriers and dams Retention ponds Rocks as bridges Tree planting and transplanting Wetlands |
Restore riparian and aquatic habitats and flora, fauna, and microorganisms | Bioremediation Construction of fish mating areas Control of invasive species Reintroduction of fish species Reintroduction of native plants Row planting with pioneer species Soil bioengineering Sustainable grasslands planted with native species |
Create river cultures | Green riverside areas Pumps to establish a constant flow Shrub planting Planting of grasses Participation of neighbors in planting and caring for plants Food gardens All the actions related to “Generate recreational spaces and integrate the urban landscape” below Compost Educational vegetable garden Environmental education and river cleanup campaigns Blue areas Botanical garden Environmental interpretation signs Ecological zone for environmental education Nature education sites |
Guarantee food production | Food gardens Urban Food Forestry |
Impact public policies | Fines and incentives on river use across a region Multisector water parliament at a regional level Organization of forums on urban rivers Regulatory changes and water use agreements in a region of Europe |
Rehabilitate local economies and integrate the urban landscape | Equine exhibition area Markets Museums Passive and active recreational areas Relocation of families living along the riverbed Re-use of demolition material of old canal structures Sports arenas Stores |
Generate recreational spaces and integrate the urban landscape | Bench areas Bikeways Connectivity to other means of transportation Construction of linear and ecological corridor Construction of marshes and low-lying areas Construction of piers or beaches Construction of willow swamps Cycle paths Green parking lots Green riverside areas Large parks or urban forests Mapping Ornamental trees Playgrounds/green schools Public toilets Rain gardens Sidewalk gardens and plantings Trails and bridges, kayak ports Vegetation in alleys and streets Vertical terrace walls |
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Delgado-Lemus, T.S.; Moreno-Calles, A.I. Agroforestry Contributions to Urban River Rehabilitation. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7657. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137657
Delgado-Lemus TS, Moreno-Calles AI. Agroforestry Contributions to Urban River Rehabilitation. Sustainability. 2022; 14(13):7657. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137657
Chicago/Turabian StyleDelgado-Lemus, Tzitzi Sharhí, and Ana Isabel Moreno-Calles. 2022. "Agroforestry Contributions to Urban River Rehabilitation" Sustainability 14, no. 13: 7657. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137657