Are There Conflicts among Energy Security, Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability in China’s Provinces?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Methods and Data
3.1. Synergy-Degree Evaluation Model
3.1.1. Ordering Degree Model of Subsystems
3.1.2. The Synergy Degree Model of Each Subsystem
3.1.3. The Synergy-Degree Model of Energy Security, Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability
3.2. Selection of Evaluation Index
3.2.1. Energy Security
3.2.2. Energy Equity
3.2.3. Environmental Sustainability
3.2.4. Data Sources
4. Results
4.1. Analysis of the Conflict between Energy Security and Energy Equity
4.1.1. Overall Analysis
4.1.2. Provincial Level
4.2. Analysis of the Conflict between Energy Security and Environmental Sustainability
4.2.1. Overall Analysis
4.2.2. Provincial Level
4.3. Analysis of the Conflict between Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability
4.3.1. Overall Analysis
4.3.2. Provincial Level
4.4. Analysis of the Conflict among Energy Security, Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability
4.4.1. Overall Analysis
4.4.2. Provincial Level
5. Conclusions and Policy Implication
5.1. Conclusions
5.2. Policy Implication
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi). Available online: https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/EN/Pressemitteilungen/2019/20191015-altmaier-gradual-cut-in-the-egg-surcharge-is-necessary-step.html (accessed on 15 October 2019).
- Johnson, E.P.; Oliver, M. Renewable Generation Capacity and Wholesale Electricity Price Variance. Energy J. 2019, 40, 143–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Energy Trilemma Index. 2019. Available online: https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/WETrilemma_2019_Full_Report_v4_pages.pdf?v=1601288224 (accessed on 11 September 2019).
- Berjawi, A.E.H.; Walker, S.L.; Patsios, C.; Hosseini, S.H.R. An evaluation framework for future integrated energy systems: A whole energy systems approach. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2021, 145, 111163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahmed, A.M.H.A.A.; Feng, Z.G.; Wasim, I.; Qaiser, A.; Muhammad, M.; Robina, I. Novel approach of Principal Component Analysis method to assess the national energy performance via Energy Trilemma Index. Energy Rep. 2019, 5, 704–713. [Google Scholar]
- Fang, Y.; Alharthi, M.; Bhatti, Z.; Sun, L.; Iqbal, W. The dynamic role of energy security, energy equity and environmental sustainability in the dilemma of emission reduction and economic growth. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 280, 111828. [Google Scholar]
- Jhx, A.; Ying, F.A.; Smya, B. Energy conservation and CO2 emission reduction in China’s 11th Five-Year Plan: A performance evaluation. Energy Econ. 2014, 46, 348–359. [Google Scholar]
- Jie, D.; Xu, X.; Guo, F. The future of coal supply in China based on non-fossil energy development and carbon price strategies-ScienceDirect. Energy 2020, 220, 119644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López-González, A.; Ferrer-Martí, L.; Domenech, B. Sustainable rural electrification planning in developing countries: A proposal for electrification of isolated communities of Venezuela. Energy Policy 2019, 129, 327–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ike, G.N.; Usman, O.; Alola, A.A.; Asumadu-Sarkodie, S. Environmental quality effects of income, energy prices and trade: The role of renewable energy consumption in G-7 countries. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 721, 137813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erik, G.; Klaas, K.; Kerstin, T. Distributional Challenges of Sustainability Policies—The Case of the German Energy Transition. Sustainability 2015, 7, 16599–16615. [Google Scholar]
- Holley, C.; Lecavalier, E. Energy governance, energy security and environmental sustainability: A case study from Hong Kong. Energy Policy 2017, 108, 379–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herie, P.; Sungwoo, B. Quantitative Assessment of Energy Supply Security: Korea Case Study. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1854. [Google Scholar]
- Li, J.; Wang, L.; Lin, X.; Qu, S. Analysis of China’s energy security evaluation system: Based on the energy security data from 30 provinces from 2010 to 2016. Energy 2020, 198, 117346.1–117346.11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohammadnejad, M.; Ghazvini, M.; Mahlia, T.M.I.; Andriyana, A. A review on energy scenario and sustainable energy in Iran. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2011, 15, 4652–4658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Changbum, A.; Sanghyun, L.; Feniosky, P.M.; Simaan, A. Toward Environmentally Sustainable Construction Processes: The U.S. and Canada’s Perspective on Energy Consumption and GHG/CAP Emissions. Sustainability 2010, 2, 354–370. [Google Scholar]
- Sun, H.; Mohsin, M.; Alharthi, M.; Abbas, Q. Measuring environmental sustainability performance of South Asia. J. Clean Prod. 2019, 251, 119519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ong, H.C.; Mahlia, T.M.I.; Masjuki, H.H. A review on energy scenario and sustainable energy in Malaysia. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2011, 15, 639–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karekezi, S. Poverty and energy in Africa—A brief review. Energy Policy 2002, 30, 915–919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Resch, G.; Held, A.; Faber, T.; Panzer, C.; Toro, F.; Haas, R. Potentials and prospects for renewable energies at global scale. Energy Policy 2008, 36, 4048–4056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rio, P.D. Analysing future trends of renewable electricity in the EU in a low-carbon context. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2011, 15, 2520–2533. [Google Scholar]
- Xu, Y.; Yang, Z.; Yuan, J. The economics of renewable energy power in China. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 2021, 23, 1341–1351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meng, Q.; Han, W. Research on coordination degree model of composite system. J. Tianjin Univ. Nat. Sci. Eng. Technol. Ed. 2000, 33, 444–446. [Google Scholar]
- Tao, C.; Chen, W.; Lin, L. An empirical analysis of the synergistic degree of China’s industrial organization evolution: Taking China’s IT industry under the background of enterprise convergence as an example. Manag. World 2007, 12, 67–72. [Google Scholar]
- Zhong, N.; Wu, X.; Guo, J. Co-integration analysis of the relationship between information industry and economic growth. Stat. Educ. 2006, 4, 18–21. [Google Scholar]
- Diakoulaki, D.; Mavrotas, G.; Papayannakis, L. Determining objective weights in multiple criteria problems: The critic method. Comput. Oper. Res. 1995, 22, 763–770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsumoto, K.; Shiraki, H. Energy security performance in Japan under different socioeconomic and energy conditions. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2018, 90, 391–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Löschel, A.; Ulf, M.; Rübbelke Dirk, T.G. Indicators of energy security in industrialised countries. Energy Policy 2009, 38, 1665–1671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Shi, X.; Yao, L. Evaluating energy security of resource-poor economies: A modified principle component analysis approach. Energy Econ. 2016, 58, 211–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Esen, V.; Oral, B. Natural gas reserve/production ratio in Russia, Iran, Qatar and Turkmenistan: A political and economic perspective. Energy Policy 2016, 93, 101–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pereira, M.G.; Freitas, M.A.V.; Silva, N.F.D. The challenge of energy poverty: Brazilian case study. Energy Policy 2011, 39, 167–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edmonds, J.; Wilson, T.; Wise, M.; Weyant, J. Electrification of the economy and CO2 emissions mitigation. Environ. Econ. Policy Stud. 2006, 7, 175–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maza, A.; Villaverde, J. The world per capita electricity consumption distribution: Signs of convergence? Energy Policy 2008, 36, 4255–4261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kong, X.; Liu, C.; Shen, Y.; Hu, W.; Ma, T.T. Power supply reliability evaluation based on big data analysis for distribution networks considering uncertain factors. Sust. Cities Soc. 2020, 63, 102483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Högberg, P. Environmental science: Nitrogen impacts on forest carbon. Nature 2007, 447, 781–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Myles, L.T.; Heuer, M.W.; Meyers, T.P.; Hoyett, Z.J. A comparison of observed and parameterized SO2 dry deposition over a grassy clearing in Duke Forest. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 49, 212–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
First Level Indicators | Secondary Indicators | Third Level Indicators | Unit | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Evaluation index system of energy security, energy equity and environmental sustainability | Energy security | Energy-supply security | Diversity of primary energy supply | - |
Reserve ratio | % | |||
Energy-consumption security | Energy external dependence | % | ||
Energy equity | Electrification rate | Per-capita electricity consumption | kWh/person | |
Proportion of electricity consumption in total energy consumption | % | |||
Quality energy access | Power-supply reliability | % | ||
Energy affordability | Electricity price | CNY/kWh | ||
Gasoline price | CNY/ton | |||
Diesel price | CNY/ton | |||
Natural gas price | CNY/m3 | |||
Power affordability of residents | ||||
Environmental sustainability | Resource productivity | End energy intensity | - | |
Line loss rate | % | |||
Coal consumption | g/kWh | |||
Decarbonization | Proportion of installed clean-energy-power generation | % | ||
Carbon dioxide emission intensity | - | |||
Emission and pollution | Carbon dioxide per capita | tons/person | ||
Annual average concentration of NO2 | μg/m3 | |||
Annual average concentration of SO2 | μg/m3 | |||
Annual average concentration of PM2.5 | μg/m3 | |||
Annual average concentration of PM10 | μg/m3 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ge, Y.; Liu, L.; Yao, X.; Honardost, M.A.; Nwigwe, U.A. Are There Conflicts among Energy Security, Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability in China’s Provinces? Sustainability 2022, 14, 6873. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116873
Ge Y, Liu L, Yao X, Honardost MA, Nwigwe UA. Are There Conflicts among Energy Security, Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability in China’s Provinces? Sustainability. 2022; 14(11):6873. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116873
Chicago/Turabian StyleGe, Yijian, Lin Liu, Xilong Yao, Mohammad Aman Honardost, and Ujunwa Angela Nwigwe. 2022. "Are There Conflicts among Energy Security, Energy Equity and Environmental Sustainability in China’s Provinces?" Sustainability 14, no. 11: 6873. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116873