Measuring Compound Soil Erosion by Wind and Water in the Eastern Agro–Pastoral Ecotone of Northern China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.3. Methodology
2.3.1. Water Erosion Model
Factor | Formulas | References | |
---|---|---|---|
Rainfall erosivity (R) | (2) | [43] | |
(3) | |||
(4) | |||
(5) | |||
(6) | |||
Topographic (LS) | (7) | [44] | |
Vegetation cover (B) | (8) | [32] | |
(9) | |||
(10) | |||
(11) | |||
(12) | |||
(13) | |||
Soil erodibility (K) | (14) | [45] | |
(15) |
2.3.2. Wind Erosion Model
Factor | Formulas | References | |
---|---|---|---|
Wind erosion climate (WF) | (19) | [46] | |
(20) | |||
(21) | |||
Surface roughness (K′) | (22) | [48] | |
(23) | |||
Comprehensive vegetation (C) | (24) | [49] | |
Soil erodibility (EF) | (25) | [46] | |
Soil crust (SCF) | (26) | [46] |
2.3.3. Estimation of CSE
2.3.4. Mapping the Distribution of Soil Erosion Types
2.3.5. Assessing Classification Accuracy of Soil Erosion Types
2.3.6. Validation of the Soil Erosion Results
3. Results
3.1. Soil Erosion Intensity
3.2. Soil Erosion Type Distribution
3.3. Validation of Water Erosion
3.4. Validation of Wind Erosion
3.5. Validation of CSE
4. Discussion
4.1. Effectiveness and Seasonality of CSE
4.2. The Contribution of This Study to Soil Erosion Research
4.3. Uncertainty of Effects of Wind-on-Water and Water-on-Wind
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of Data | Data Name | Temporal Resolution | Spatial Resolution | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
Meteorological data | DS3505—Surface Data Hourly Global | 3 h, 1961–2015 | Weather station | NOAA, http://gis.ncdc.noaa.gov/map/viewer/#app=clim&cfg=cdo&theme=hourly&layers=1&node=gis (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
China surface climate data daily data set (V3.0) | Daily, 1961–2015 | Weather station | China Meteorological Data Service Center (CMDC), http://data.cma.cn/ (accessed on 17 May 2022) | |
Land use | China Land Use Status Remote Sensing Monitoring Database | 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010 | 1 km × 1 km | Resource and Environment Data Cloud Platform, http://www.resdc.cn (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
Landsat TM images | 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015 | 30 m × 30 m | USGS. http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/ (accessed on 17 May 2022) | |
DEM | Land elevation data | 2005 | 30 m × 30 m | ASTER GDEM, https://earthdata.nasa.gov/ (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
Soil humidity | This global ECV soil moisture data set | 1978–2014, monthly | 0.25° × 0.25° | European Space Agency, http://www.esa-soilmoisture-cci.org/node/145 (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
Snow cover | China Snow Deep Time Series Dataset | 1978–2014, daily | 1 km × 1 km | National Cryosphere Desert Data Center. http://www.cryosphere.csdb.cn/portal/metadata/d9a9e8ae-3e8f-4c1a-b1a6-a739a405c971 (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
Soil | Soil and Terrain Database (SOTER) for China | 2014 | Vector unit | World soil information (ISRIC), https://files.isric.org/public/soter/CN-SOTER.zip (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
Survey data | The vegetation Coverage in Eastern Section of Farming–Pasture Ecotone of Northern China | 2015–2016 | 1 m × 1 m | Research group of “research on land use and compound soil erosion by wind and water in study area” |
Erosion verification data | Spatial Distribution Data of Soil Erosion in China | 1995 | 1 km × 1 km | Resource and Environment Data Cloud Platform, http://www.resdc.cn (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
China Soil and Water Conservation Bulletin | 2004–2015 | Runoff Plots | Ministry of Water Resources, http://www.swcc.org.cn/CountryTopics.asp (accessed on 17 May 2022) |
Slope(°) | ≤1 | 1–3 | 3–9 | 9–13 | 13–17 | 17–21 | 21–25 | ≥25 |
Tillage | 0.74 | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.62 | 0.68 | 0.75 | 0.81 | 0.92 |
Types | Erosion Rate t km−2 yr−1 | Erosion Area km2 | Proportion of the Study Area % |
---|---|---|---|
Water erosion | 4323.67 | 2.63 × 105 | 62.23 |
Wind erosion | 536.15 | 1.45 × 105 | 34.31 |
Soil erosion | 4859.96 | 3.486 × 105 | 82.49 |
Ground-Truthing | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No Erosion | Water Erosion | Wind Erosion | CSE | Total | User Accuracy (%) | ||
Identifying the soil erosion type results | No erosion | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 |
Water erosion | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 100 | |
Wind erosion | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 100 | |
CSE | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 6 | 66.67 | |
Total | 2 | 7 | 3 | 6 | 18 | 72.22 |
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Lin, D.; Shi, P.; Meadows, M.; Yang, H.; Wang, J.; Zhang, G.; Hu, Z. Measuring Compound Soil Erosion by Wind and Water in the Eastern Agro–Pastoral Ecotone of Northern China. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6272. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106272
Lin D, Shi P, Meadows M, Yang H, Wang J, Zhang G, Hu Z. Measuring Compound Soil Erosion by Wind and Water in the Eastern Agro–Pastoral Ecotone of Northern China. Sustainability. 2022; 14(10):6272. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106272
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin, Degen, Peijun Shi, Michael Meadows, Huiming Yang, Jing’ai Wang, Gangfeng Zhang, and Zhenhua Hu. 2022. "Measuring Compound Soil Erosion by Wind and Water in the Eastern Agro–Pastoral Ecotone of Northern China" Sustainability 14, no. 10: 6272. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106272