Effects of the INDC and GGRMA Regulations on the Impact of PM2.5 Particle Emissions on Maritime Ports: A Study of Human Health and Environmental Costs
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Estimate the health and environmental costs from the PM2.5 emissions from shipping-related transportation involved in international trading in Kaohsiung from 2005 to 2017;
- Estimate the health and environmental costs from the PM2.5 emissions from shipping-related international trading transportation in Kaohsiung in 2030 and 2050 in a business as usual (BAU) scenario, where none of the regulations specified in the INDC or GGRMA are applied;
- Estimate the reduction in PM2.5 emissions and the projected health and environmental costs from the PM2.5 emissions from shipping-related international trading transportation in Kaohsiung in 2030 and 2050 when the regulations specified in the INDC or GGRMA are applied (Scenario-INDC and Scenario-GGRMA).
2. Research Methodology
2.1. Data Desciption
2.2. Notation
2.3. Models
2.3.1. Model of PM2.5 Emission
2.3.2. Forecasting Model
2.3.3. External Environmental Costs
3. Empirical Results
3.1. Data Analysis for Shipping-Related Emissions in Kaohsiung
3.2. Forecasting of Fleets Entering the Port of Kaohsiung and the Amount of Cargo Handling
3.2.1. MAPE
3.2.2. Forecasting Future Fleets in the Port of Kaohsiung
3.2.3. Quantity of Handling Cargoes
3.3. Shipping-Related Emissions under Different Scenarios
3.4. External Environmental Costs of Shipping-Related Emissions
3.4.1. The External Environmental Costs Derived from the Basic Data
3.4.2. External Environmental Costs under the Various Scenarios
4. Conclusions and Policy Implications
Conclusions
- The relative percentages of ships, cargo-handling equipment, and heavy-duty vehicles included in this study were 87%, 6%, and 7%, respectively. The type of ships producing the most PM2.5 particles were found to be container ships, which produce 71% of total emissions. The other producers of shipping emissions were bulk ships (15%), tankers (10%), and fishing ships (4%). The types of activities producing emissions include hotelling, which produced 74% of the emissions, followed by cruising (24%) and maneuvering (2%).
- From 2005 to 2017, shipping-related transportation operations in Kaohsiung produced 3245.03 tons of PM2.5 particles emissions, with USD 1898.42 million in environmental costs, an external health cost of 2722.58 DALYs, and an average health impact index of 7.17% annually, which means that 7.17% of the PM2.5-related diseases in Kaohsiung could be due to shipping-related transportation.
- For Scenario-INDC in 2030, when compared to the BAU scenario, particle emissions were projected to decrease by 924.88 tons of PM2.5; environmental losses were projected to decrease by USD 509.41 million per year; external health costs were projected to decrease by 773.98 DALYs, and the IHI value was projected to decrease by 2.05%, which means that 2.05% of PM2.5-related diseases would be avoided, including stroke, ischemic heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute lower respiratory infections, etc.
- In terms of Scenario-GGRMA in 2050, when compared to the BAU, particle emissions were projected to decrease by 2069.46 tons of PM2.5; environmental costs were projected to decrease by USD 1139.84 million per year; external health costs were projected to decrease by 1736.28 DALYs, and the IHI value was projected to decrease by 4.58%, which means 4.58% of PM2.5-related diseases would be avoided.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Objects | Description |
---|---|
Ship | Types of ships: container ships, bulk ships, tankers, and others. A total of 18,773 ships entered into Kaohsiung port in 2017, including 9349 container ships, 5161 bulk carriers, 2992 tankers, and 1271 other ships. |
Cargo-Handling Equipment | Take gantry cranes as the research object. A total of 68 gantry cranes are included in the port of Kaohsiung. |
Heavy Vehicles | Take tractors as the research objects. A total of 544 tractors are included in the port of Kaohsiung. |
Index | Description | |
---|---|---|
i | i = 1~3 (1 = Ships, 2 = Cargo-handling equipment, 3 = Heavy-duty vehicles) | |
j | j = 1~4 (1 = Container ships, 2 = Bulk ships, 3 = Tankers, 4 = Other ships) | |
k | k = 1~3 (1 = Cruising, 2 = Maneuvering, 3 = Hotelling) | |
l | l = 1~4 (1 = Container, 2 = Bulk, 3 = Oil cargo, 4 = Fish cargo) | |
Ei | PM2.5 emissions from source i (1 = Ship, 2 = Cargo-handling equipment, 3 = Heavy-duty Vehicle) | ton |
ECHealth | External environmental health costs | DALY |
ECEnvironmental | External environmental costs | USD/ton |
Energy | Energy consumption of ships | kW-h |
EFi | Emission source i | g/kW-h (heavy-duty vehicle in term of g/mile) |
FCFi | Fuel correction emission source i, corrected based on different fuels | No unit |
Nj | Number of ships of type j | fleet |
MCR | Maximum continuous rated engine power | kW |
LFj | Load factor for ship type j | No unit |
Acti | Activity of emission source i | h (heavy-duty vehicle in term of mile) |
ASjk | Actual speed of type j ship on an activity k | knot |
MSj | Maximum speed of ship type j | knot |
Dk | Distance of ship on activity k | mile |
HP | Rated horsepower for cargo-handling equipment | hp |
ZH | Zero-hour emission rate | g/hp·h |
DR | Deterioration rate | g/hp-h2 |
CommHours | Cumulative hours of cargo-handling equipment | h |
Ni | Amount of emission source equipment type i | |
Ql | Handling cargo type l | ton |
HVl | Maximum load weight of heavy-duty vehicles of cargo type l | ton |
Xt | Forecasting value at period t | fleet, TEU, ton |
Yt | Actual value at period t | fleet, TEU, ton |
α | Smoothing constant, 0 < α < 1 | No unit |
n | Actual numerical and forecasting values | year |
At | Actual value at year t | fleet, TEU, ton |
Et | Forecasting value at year t | fleet, TEU, ton |
factorH | External environmental health cost | DALY/ton |
GBDPM2.5 | Global burden of disease of PM2.5-related disease | DALY |
Pop1 | Size of population | person |
Pop2 | Population burden of disease, based on 500,000 people | person |
factorE | External environmental costs | USD/ton |
Emission Source | Type | Contribution | Total |
---|---|---|---|
) | Container Ship | 60.20% | 84.47% |
Bulk Ship | 13.00% | ||
Tanker | 8.14% | ||
Other Ship (Fish Ship) | 3.13% | ||
) | Gantry Crane | 3.91% | 6.64% |
RTG Crane | 2.61% | ||
Laden Container Forklift | 0.03% | ||
Empty Container Forklift | 0.09% | ||
) | Container Tractor | 3.97% | 8.90% |
Bulk Cargo Truck | 3.62% | ||
Tank Truck | 1.26% | ||
Fish Truck | 0.05% |
Year | Container (TEU) | Bulk Cargo (ton) | Oil Cargo (ton) | Fish Cargo (ton) |
---|---|---|---|---|
2005 | 9,471,056 | 70,177,402 | 22,889,609 | 660,146 |
2030 | 10,193,470 | 54,316,146 | 17,424,652 | 759,121 |
2050 | 10,621,486 | 51,554,801 | 16,544,681 | 576,988 |
Ship | Cargo-Handling Equipment | Heavy-Duty Vehicles | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
External Health Costs (DALYs) | 2299.44 | 83.94 | 261.54 | 2644.92 |
Index of Health Impact (%) | 6.06 | 0.48 | 0.64 | 7.17 |
External Environmental Costs (USD million) | 1509.70 | 118.61 | 159.01 | 1787.32 |
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Chang, C.-C.; Chang, Y.-W.; Huang, P.-C. Effects of the INDC and GGRMA Regulations on the Impact of PM2.5 Particle Emissions on Maritime Ports: A Study of Human Health and Environmental Costs. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6133. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106133
Chang C-C, Chang Y-W, Huang P-C. Effects of the INDC and GGRMA Regulations on the Impact of PM2.5 Particle Emissions on Maritime Ports: A Study of Human Health and Environmental Costs. Sustainability. 2022; 14(10):6133. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106133
Chicago/Turabian StyleChang, Ching-Chih, Yu-Wei Chang, and Po-Chien Huang. 2022. "Effects of the INDC and GGRMA Regulations on the Impact of PM2.5 Particle Emissions on Maritime Ports: A Study of Human Health and Environmental Costs" Sustainability 14, no. 10: 6133. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106133