Exploring the Spatial Image of Traditional Villages from the Tourists’ Hand-Drawn Sketches
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Dominant Elements of Spatial Cognition
2.2. Cognitive Map Types
3. Methodology
3.1. Case of Traditional Village
3.2. Study Design
3.3. Data Collection
4. Results
4.1. Cognitive Map Type Analysis
4.1.1. Spatial Cognitive Map
- (1)
- Patterned cognitive map (see Figure 2a). This type of cognitive map is dominated by landmarks and districts, mostly centred on traditional village residential buildings, with surrounding mountains and rivers as the regional scope, forming the living space pattern of poetic dwelling in traditional villages. A total of 196 patterned cognitive maps are available, accounting for 53.55% of the total samples.
- (2)
- Scattered cognitive map (see Figure 2b). This type of cognitive map does not have a clear district concept, and most of them represent the spatial distribution of traditional village residential buildings in the form of points, circles, and icons. Only 12 scattered-point cognitive maps are available, accounting for 3.28% of the total samples, and most of these were multipoint nonzonal, whereas other district single-point, multipoint, and non-zonal cognitive maps rarely appeared.
- (3)
- Linked cognitive map (see Figure 2c). This type of cognitive map is mostly presented in the form of path linking residential buildings to outline the tour routes of traditional villages. Only 8 linked cognitive maps are available, accounting for 2.19% of the total samples.
4.1.2. Individual Cognitive Map
- (1)
- Entity cognitive map (see Figure 3a). This type of cognitive map is presented in the form of realistic landmark landscapes, most of which are beautifully and vividly drawn with an emphasis on landscape details that truly reflect tourists’ understanding of the cultural connotations of Fujian Tulou, Hui-style dwellings, and their architectural techniques. A total of 100 entity cognitive maps are available, accounting for 27.32% of the total sample.
- (2)
- Abstract cognitive map (see Figure 3b). This type of cognitive map is not a realistic representation of the landmark landscape of traditional villages, but a fictionalised depiction of the landmark landscape and its surrounding scenery, or an abstraction of the landmark landscape into some symbols to express. A total of 16 abstract cognitive maps are available, accounting for 4.37% of the total sample.
- (3)
- Scene cognitive map (see Figure 3c). Such cognitive maps integrate characters into the iconic landscape background of traditional villages, reflect specific tourism scenes, and express the good memories of tourists. The number of scene cognitive maps is very small. Only 4 pictures of tourists taking photos in front of the Tulou and family travel are found, accounting for 1.09% of the total sample, but they vividly show the interaction screen between tourists and traditional villages.
4.1.3. Hybrid Cognitive Map
4.1.4. Sequential Cognitive Maps
- (1)
- Fragmented cognitive map (see Figure 5a). This type of cognitive map is mainly a fragment of a certain area of traditional villages outlined by tourists, mostly along village alleys or footpaths. Six maps are available, accounting for 1.64% of the total sample. Compared with the complexity of chain, branch/loop, and network [2], fragment is the most elementary type, and more clearly reflects tourists’ spatial cognition mode dominated by destination route.
- (2)
- Branch/loop cognitive map (see Figure 5b). This type only has two cognitive maps, accounting for 0.55% of the total sample. Tourists form cognitive maps according to the direction of traditional village branches/loop routes.
- (3)
- Network cognitive map (see Figure 5c). Only two cognitive maps are available, accounting for 0.55% of the total sample. Tourists construct their overall cognition of traditional villages by connecting the traffic route network and regional functional zoning to form cognitive map.
4.2. Analysis of Spatial Cognitive Elements
4.2.1. Landmark
4.2.2. Path
4.2.3. District
4.2.4. Edge
4.2.5. Node
4.2.6. Animals and Plants
4.3. Analysis of Spatial Image Cognitive Process
4.3.1. Cognitive Process of Map Types
4.3.2. Cognitive Process of Spatial Elements
5. Discussion and Conclusions
5.1. Theoretical Implications
5.2. Practical Implications
5.3. Limitations and Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Lynch, K. The Image of the City; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1960. [Google Scholar]
- Appleyard, D. Styles and methods of structuring a city. Environ. Behav. 1970, 2, 100–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aragones, J.I.; Arredondo, J.M. Structure of urban cognitive maps. J. Environ. Psychol. 1985, 5, 197–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hart, R.A.; Moore, G.T. The development of spatial cognition: A review. In Image and Environment; Downs, R.M., Stea, D., Eds.; Arnold: London, UK, 1973. [Google Scholar]
- Siegel, A.W.; White, S.H. The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior; Resse, H.W., Ed.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1975. [Google Scholar]
- Kitchin, R.M. Increasing the integrity of cognitive mapping research: Appraising conceptual schemata of environment-behaviour interaction. Prog. Hum. Geogr. 1996, 20, 56–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Spencer, C.; Weetman, M. The microgenesis of cognitive maps: A longitudinal study of new residents of an urban area. Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr. 1981, 6, 375–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, Y.; Schmidt, C.G. Evolution of urban spatial cognition: Patterns of change in Guangzhou China. Environ. Plan. A 1988, 20, 339–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Humphreys, J.S. Place learning and spatial cognition: A longitudinal study of urban newcomers. Tijdschr. Voor Econ. En Soc. Geogr. 1990, 81, 364–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Son, A. The measurement of tourist destination image: Applying a sketch map technique. Int. J. Tour. Res. 2005, 7, 279–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uusitalo, M. Differences in tourists’ and local residents’ perceptions of tourism landscapes: A case study from Ylläs, Finnish Lapland. Scand. J. Hosp. Tour. 2010, 10, 310–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiang, Z.J.; Wu, G.Q.; Bai, G.R. A spatial analysis of the image of tourist destinations: A case study on ancient water towns in southern Yangtze river. Tour. Trib. 2004, 19, 32–36. [Google Scholar]
- Tian, F.J.; Sha, R. A spatial analysis of the image of urban tourist destinations: A case study on Nanchang. Tour. Trib. 2008, 23, 67–71. [Google Scholar]
- Fan, W.Y. The image and spatial integration of the central areas at tourism-oriented small town: A case of Yangshuo town. Tour. Trib. 2010, 25, 53–57. [Google Scholar]
- Ma, Y.F.; Li, J.Y. Study on schemes mode of tourists geospatial cognition. J. Remote Sens. 2008, 12, 378–384. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, J.; Cui, R.; Liu, M.; Song, Y. On tourists’ spatial cognition model and knowledge. J. Northwest Univ. Nat. Sci. Ed. 2012, 42, 1011–1015. [Google Scholar]
- Bai, K.; Zhao, A.Z. Studies on convergence and divergence of city image and destination image. Prog. Geogr. 2011, 30, 1312–1320. [Google Scholar]
- Jiang, Z.J.; Zhang, J.; Han, G.S.; Cao, J. A study review of cognitive maps of tourists. Tour. Trib. 2009, 24, 77–85. [Google Scholar]
- Guy, B.S.; Curtis, W.W.; Crotts, J.C. Environmental learning of first-time travelers. Ann. Tour. Res. 1990, 17, 419–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walmsley, D.J.; Jenkins, J.M. Tourism cognitive mapping of unfamiliar environments. Ann. Tour. Res. 1992, 19, 268–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erem, Ö. Revealing recreational settlement image from tourist sketch maps: A mediterranean holiday village. Asia Pac. J. Tour. Res. 2021, 26, 685–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kitchin, R.M. Cognitive maps: What are they and why study them? J. Environ. Psychol. 1994, 14, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’ Laughlin, E.M.; Brubaker, B.S. Use of landmarks in cognitive mapping: Gender differences in self report versus performance. Personal. Individ. Differ. 1998, 24, 595–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ommen, C.V.; Painter, D. Mapping East London: Sketching identity through place. S. Afr. J. Psychol. 2005, 35, 505–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hart, R.A.; Moore, G.T. Extracts from the development of spatial cognition. In Environmental Psychology, People and Their Physical Settings; Proshansky, H.M., Ittelson, W.H., Rivlin, L.G., Eds.; Rinehart and Winston Press: Holt, MO, USA, 1976. [Google Scholar]
- Golledge, R.G. Cognition of physical and built environments. In Environment, Cognition, and Action: An Integrated Approach; Gärling, T.E., Evans, G.W.E., Eds.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- Devlin, A.S. The “small town” cognitive map: Adjusting to a new environment. In Environmental Knowing: Theories, Research, and Methods; Moore, G.T., Golledge, R.G., Eds.; Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross: New York, NY, USA; Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 1976. [Google Scholar]
- Huynh, N.T.; Hall, G.B.; Doherty, S.; Smith, W.W. Interpreting urban space through cognitive map sketching and sequence analysis. Can. Geogr. 2008, 52, 222–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Song, W.X.; Lv, C.; Xu, Y. Study on spatial image of community based on comparison of 250 sketch maps drawn by residents in Nanjing. Geogr. Res. 2011, 30, 709–722. [Google Scholar]
- Bomfim, Z.A.C.; Urrutia, E.P. Affective dimension in cognitive maps of Barcelona and São Paulo. Int. J. Psychol. 2005, 40, 37–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Young, M. Cognitive maps of nature based tourists. Ann. Tour. Res. 1999, 26, 817–839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pocock, D.C.D. Some characteristics of mental maps: An empirical study. Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr. 1976, 1, 493–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wong, K.Y. Maps in minds: An empirical study. Environ. Plan. A 1979, 11, 1289–1304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feng, J. Spatial cognition and the image space of Beijing’s residents. Sci. Geogr. Sin. 2005, 25, 142–154. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, X.H.; Su, J.N.; Wei, S.W. Image space and its structure of urban residents in Lan Zhou city. Hum. Geogr. 2010, 25, 54–60. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, M.Y.; Hitchcock, M.; Lei, J.W. Mental mapping and heritage visitors’ spatial perceptions. J. Herit. Tour. 2017, 13, 305–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, C.H.; Bai, K.; Ma, Y.F. The research on inbound tourists’ cognition sequence for spatial image of urban destinations in Xi’an. Geogr. Res. 2014, 33, 1315–1334. [Google Scholar]
- Qian, S.W.; Su, Q. Analysis of the features of tourists’ spatial perception of Classical Gardens in Suzhou. Tour. Sci. 2010, 24, 56–63. [Google Scholar]
- Li, X.; Wang, Z.H.; Xia, B.; Chen, S.C.; Chen, S. Testing the associations between quality-based factors and their impacts on historic village tourism. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 2019, 32, 100573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Wu, Z. The reproduction of heritage in a Chinese village: Whose heritage, Whose pasts. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2015, 22, 228–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, J.; Wu, B.H. Revitalizing traditional villages through rural tourism: A case study of Yuanjia village, Shaanxi Province, China. Tour. Manag. 2017, 63, 223–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pearce, P.L. Route maps: A study of travellers’ perceptions of a section of countryside. J. Environ. Psychol. 1981, 1, 141–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tian, F.J.; Sha, R.; Wang, Z.L. Analysis of the image of urban tourist destinations: A case study of Nanchang city. Resour. Sci. 2009, 31, 1007–1014. [Google Scholar]
- Golledge, R.G.; Stimson, R.J. Spatial Behavior: A Geographic Perspective; The Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Evans, G.W.; Marrero, D.G.; Butler, P.A. Environmental learning and cognitive mapping. Environ. Behav. 1981, 13, 83–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Golledge, R.C. Learning about urban environments. In Timing Space and Spacing Time; Carlstein, T., Parkes, D., Thrift, N., Eds.; Edward Arnold: London, UK, 1978. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, C.H.; Bai, K.; Ma, Y.F.; Song, B.H. Scenic spot endorsement of China tourism image from the perspective of inbound tourists. Geogr. Res. 2013, 32, 924–941. [Google Scholar]
- Jiang, Z.J.; Zhang, J.; Wang, H.L.; Zou, W. The elevation cognition of terrain and its influencing factors in a small-scale environment: A case study of Pukou Campus, Nanjing University. Geogr. Res. 2012, 31, 2270–2282. [Google Scholar]
- Manrique-Sancho, M.T.; Avelar, S.; Iturrioz-Aguirre, T.; Manso-Callejo, M.Á. Using the spatial knowledge of map users to personalize city maps: A case study with tourists in Madrid, Spain. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gieseking, J.J. Where we go from here: The mental sketch mapping method and its analytic components. Qual. Inq. 2013, 19, 712–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Winkelman, M. Cultural shock and adaptation. J. Couns. Dev. 1994, 73, 121–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Altman, I.; Rogoff, B. World views in psychology: Trait, interactional, organismic, and transactional perspectives. In Handbook of Environmental Psychology; Stokols, D., Altman, I., Eds.; John Wiley and Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Qiu, S.Z.; Cai, L.P.; Lehto, X.R.; Huang, Z.J.; Gordon, S.; Gartner, W. Reliving self-presentational concerns in rural tourism. Ann. Tour. Res. 2019, 74, 56–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Author | Study Area (Nation) | Research Object | Cognitive Map Type | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sequential | Spatial | Hybrid | Individual | Others | |||
Appleyard [2] | Guyana (Venezuela) | resident | √ | √ | |||
Huynh et al. [28] | Toronto (Canada) | resident | √ | √ | √ | ||
Bomfim et al. [30] | Barcelona and São Paulo (Spain and Brazil) | resident | √ | √ | √ | ||
Pocock [32] | Durham (United Kingdom) | resident | √ | √ | |||
Wong [33] | Hong Kong (China) | resident | √ | √ | |||
Feng [34] | Beijing (China) | resident | √ | √ | √ | ||
Zhang et al. [35] | Lanzhou (China) | resident | √ | √ | √ | ||
Uusitalo [11] | Lapland (Finland) | foreign tourist; domestic tourist | √ | √ | |||
Tian and Sha [13] | Nanchang (China) | domestic tourist | √ | √ | |||
Guy et al. [19] | Wurzburg (Germany) | domestic tourist | √ | √ | |||
Walmsley et al. [20] | Coffs harbour (Australia) | domestic tourist | √ | √ | |||
Erem [21] | Mediterranean holiday Village (Turkey) | foreign tourist; domestic tourist | √ | √ | |||
Young [31] | Daintree and Cape Tribulation (Australia) | domestic tourist | √ | √ | √ | ||
Lee et al. [36] | Macau (China) | foreign tourist; domestic tourist | √ | ||||
Zhang et al. [37] | Xi’an (China) | foreign tourist | √ | √ | √ | √ | |
Qian and Su [38] | Suzhou (China) | domestic tourist | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Cognitive Elements | Occurrence Number | Occurrence Frequency (%) | Specific Elements |
---|---|---|---|
landmark | 350 | 95.63 | “Four dishes and one soup” Tulou building in Tianluokeng, Zhencheng building, Yuchang building, Hegui building, Hakka folk culture museum, moon pond, memorial archway of Hu Wenguang governor, grinding time shop, Half-sugar coffee house, Kunlun youth hostel |
path | 154 | 42.08 | Alleys, riverside footpath, and expressways outside traditional villages |
animals and plants | 146 | 39.89 | Distant mountains, green plants, ancient trees, rape flowers, vegetable gardens; ducks, dogs, birds |
district | 26 | 7.10 | Tianluokeng and Hongkeng building group of Fujian Tulou, Xidi and Hongcun building group of southern Anhui |
edge | 16 | 4.37 | Mountains, the rivers |
node | 16 | 4.37 | Small bridge |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Jiang, Z.; Sun, Y. Exploring the Spatial Image of Traditional Villages from the Tourists’ Hand-Drawn Sketches. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5977. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105977
Jiang Z, Sun Y. Exploring the Spatial Image of Traditional Villages from the Tourists’ Hand-Drawn Sketches. Sustainability. 2022; 14(10):5977. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105977
Chicago/Turabian StyleJiang, Zuoming, and Yang Sun. 2022. "Exploring the Spatial Image of Traditional Villages from the Tourists’ Hand-Drawn Sketches" Sustainability 14, no. 10: 5977. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105977