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Article

Application of the Constraint Negotiation Theory to the Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Food Service Business: An Exploration of Perceived Value and Negotiation–Constraint–Visit Intention Relationships

by
Ha-Won Jang
and
Meehee Cho
*
College of Hotel and Tourism Management, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(10), 5812; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105812
Submission received: 30 March 2022 / Revised: 8 May 2022 / Accepted: 10 May 2022 / Published: 11 May 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Tourism, Culture, and Heritage)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) are attracting attention worldwide for positive reasons, such as animal welfare, environmental protection, and health promotion. Despite this trend and the importance of PBMAs, few quantitative studies have analyzed them from a consumer behavior perspective, which is necessary to understand the factors that influence the consumption of PBMAs. Therefore, this study focused on the value of PBMAs for consumers. Data from the final sample of 315 Korean consumers aged 18 years or older were analyzed using structural equation model analysis and multigroup analysis on the AMOS program. We applied the constraint reduction model, derived from the constraint negotiation theory, and identified the causal relationship between the value of PBMAs, constraint factors (intrapersonal and structural), negotiation factors (time, information, and cost), and restaurant visit intention. As speculated, all the hypotheses were supported. The value of PBMAs had a positive effect on visit intention and negotiation. Negotiations had a positive effect on visit intention and lowered constraints. However, constraints negatively affected visit intention. Additionally, a multigroup analysis between vegetarians and non-vegetarians was performed. Moderating effects were confirmed in the relationship between the value of PBMAs and negotiations, and between negotiations and constraints. This study thus contributes to the scant quantitative research in the field of consumer behavior toward PBMAs and is the first to apply the constraint negotiation theory to PBMA consumption research in the field of food service and hospitality industries.

1. Introduction

The global plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) market grew rapidly between 2015 and 2020 [1]. PBMAs, which contribute to reducing real meat consumption, have been a world-renowned food ingredient for several years. The main reasons for choosing plant-based foods such as PBMAs are environmental protection, consumer health, and animal welfare [2]. Sun et al. [3] reported that PBMAs are a nutritionally high-protein food with a low percentage of saturated fat. They are free from cholesterol and, hence, beneficial to human health.
Over the years, real meat has been known as the most common high-protein food [3]. However, several studies have indicated that producing real meat requires significant land, energy, and water resources. The livestock industry contributes to environmental pollution, especially in the air, soil, and water [4,5]. The livestock industry’s impact on the generation of greenhouse gases, the leading cause of global warming, is profound [6]. In addition, livestock farms usually use antibiotics to promote animal growth and protect animals against diseases, which threaten human health and food safety and disrupt ecosystems [6,7]. In addition, red meat intake causes obesity, arthritis, and heart disease [8] and increases the risk of colorectal cancer [9]. Although PBMAs have attracted attention for various reasons, studies related to PBMAs have mainly focused on the nutrition and food engineering aspects [1,3,4]. Quantitative analysis of consumer perceptions and behaviors toward PBMAs is insufficient, specifically in the context of the food service and hospitality fields. Although PBMAs are a valuable food, consumers constrain their consumption of PBMAs primarily due to taste, which necessitates quality improvement in terms of taste and texture [10,11]. Therefore, quantitative research on PBMAs consumption has become necessary; in particular, this study attempted to identify the relationship between significant variables related to consumer behavior, which is very important as it can help identify PBMAs suitable for the trend of the times.
According to Morone et al.’s [12] work on green consumption, in the case of food, certification, in particular, has a key effect on consumers’ purchasing decision-making process, and they suggest that social certification eventually improves consumers’ green consumption. Kovacs and Karesztes [13] explained that sustainable food consumption has become a fundamental concept in this era and that modern consumers value food reliability and value because they consider all three aspects of health, environment, and ethics when choosing food. In addition, they show that sustainable attributes of food have a very strong connection with purchase intention [13]. Moreover, Herrmann et al. [14] stated that sustainable packaging of food has a positive effect on consumers’ payment intention: modern consumers are willing to pay for recognizably sustainable food packaging but are not willing to pay for packaging whose sustainability they are unsure of. Thus, green consumption and sustainable consumption, which emphasize environmental protection, have become notable topics, and in general, consumer motivation, constraints, and negotiation factors have been identified as simultaneously affecting these social phenomena [15].
In light of the importance of consumer motivation, constraints, and negotiation factors as discussed thus far, constraint negotiation theory provides a good framework for this study. Hubbard and Mannell [15] proposed constraint negotiation theory, which predicts individual behavior based on a complex mechanism between motivations, constraints, and negotiations. People need to feel motivated to take appropriate actions to achieve their wishes [16]. Chang [17] explained that value and motivation are key variables that have the most significant influence on consumer behavior. The researcher also emphasized that consumer perceived value is a determinant of consumer behavior. Kim and Koo [18] stressed that individuals’ perceived value could play a role similar to that of their motives as key psychological variables that influence human behavior. This study applied the constraint reduction model of Hubbard and Mannell [15], which explains that the level of constraints perceived by individuals can be minimized by negotiations [15]. Therefore, it is expected that the constraints perceived by individuals can be reduced by sufficient negotiating value and willingness to negotiate such constraints [19]. The current study aimed to verify the causal relationship between the PBMAs’ value, individual voluntary negotiation factors (time, information, and cost), and visit intention toward restaurants specializing in PBMAs. It further investigated the extent to which negative influence on constraints can be reduced when constraint factors (intrapersonal and structural) mediate the relationship between negotiations and restaurant visit intention.
Many food companies are continuing to expand their businesses aggressively to capture the PBMA market in the food service industry [20]. Korea’s PBMA market grew by 35% in 2021 in comparison with 2020 and is estimated to reach about 13 million USD by 2022 [20]. In line with this trend, the number of restaurants specializing in PBMAs is also increasing [21]. Moreover, the proportion of vegetarians is steadily increasing with the growth of the PBMAs market [22]. The world’s vegetarian population is estimated to be approximately 180 million as of February 2022. In the United States and Europe, about 3–9% of the total population is vegetarian. Moreover, the proportion of the vegan and vegetarian population is gradually increasing worldwide [23]. Vegans eat only plant-based foods, while vegetarians consume vegetarian meals along with dairy products and, sometimes, eggs [2,24].
In this context, this study attempted to analyze the value of PBMAs in accordance with the current trend of focusing on sustainable consumption after fully examining a wide range of previous studies. Thereby, this study expected to find different relationships between consumers’ perceived value of PBMAs, constraints, and negotiations. It further anticipated differences in visit intentions of vegetarians and non-vegetarians toward restaurants serving PBMAs. The results presented, along with the confirmation of causality between the variables assumed in this study, can provide meaningful insights to revitalize PBMA consumption. Furthermore, it extends the literature on the environment, consumer health, and animal well-being and contributes to the development of the food service and hospitality industries. In the reality that sustainable consumption, sustainable food, and sustainable products are attracting attention, this study is expected to contribute greatly academically and practically.
The objectives of this study are summarized below:
  • To investigate the causal relationship between PBMAs’ value, restaurant visit intention, and negotiations (time, information acquisition, and cost).
  • To analyze the causal relationship between negotiations, visit intention, and constraints (intrapersonal and structural). Additionally, the study examines the causal relationship between constraints and visit intention.
  • To evaluate the moderating effect between vegetarians and non-vegetarians on all the aforementioned aspects.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the background of the establishment of related theories and hypotheses applied to this study based on previous studies. Section 3 describes the sampling methods, measurement tools, analysis methods, and procedures used in this study. Section 4 presents and discusses the results derived from statistical analysis, and Section 5 provides our concluding observations and the implications of the results. Finally, Section 6 discussed the limitations of the study and suggestions for future research.

2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

2.1. Consumer Perceived Value of PBMAs

The real meat industry is threatened by the improved quality of PBMAs [1,25]. The global PBMA market is expected to reach $21.23 billion USD by 2025 [26]. PBMAs are highly valued because they contribute to environmental protection, personal health promotion, and animal welfare [27]. Therefore, PBMAs have great potential to grow and dominate the market [3,27].
Bohrer [1] analyzed the nutrient content and composition of American PBMAs. The nutrients and contents, according to the type and brand of the PBMA products, comprised soybean protein, wheat protein, mushroom fungi, vegetables, and yeast. Additionally, to increase the sales of PBMAs, Schreuders et al. [4] emphasized that the quality of PBMAs should be improved such that they are similar to real meat in terms of taste, texture, and ease of preparation. They also argued that the structural characteristics should be understood first to improve the taste of PBMAs. Therefore, they studied the texture of PBMAs from the perspective of food science. In addition, Samard and Ryu [28], Sun et al. [3], and Yuliarti et al. [29] analyzed PBMAs from the perspective of nutrition and food engineering. However, few studies have analyzed consumption behavior, which is determined by the PBMAs’ value in conjunction with constraints and negotiation processes.
Hagmann et al. [30] identified Swiss consumers’ motivations for consuming PBMAs. They found that vegans (the highest levels of vegetarians (as discussed in Section 2.3.6) do not eat any animal products; pesco-vegetarians do not eat meat but consume fish, seafood, eggs, and dairy) chose PBMAs due to animal welfare and environmental pollution concerns, while pesco-vegetarians did so due to the excellent taste of PBMAs. Gómez-Luciano et al. [31] analyzed differences in PBMA purchase intention for consumers in the UK, Spain, Brazil, and the Dominican Republic. Spanish consumers showed the highest intention to purchase PBMAs, followed by Brazilians and the British [31]. However, in the case of consumers in the Dominican Republic, food neophobia was found to have a negative effect on purchase intention for PBMAs [31]. However, the literature has yet to investigate how consumers’ perceived value of PBMAs is related to their intention to visit a restaurant that serves PBMAs, through negotiation processes that reduce constraint factors.

2.2. The Constraint Negotiation Theory

Constraint theory, first proposed by Crawford and Godbey [32], identifies three subdimensions of constraints, including intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural factors [33]. Subsequently, Hubbard and Mannell [15] explained that negotiation factors along with constraints affect social phenomena; thus, they proposed the constraint negotiation theory, which adds the construct of negotiation to the constraint theory. Constraint negotiation theory explains that the motivation, constraint, and negotiation variables are associated with each other in a complex mechanism, which is useful in predicting individual behavior [15]. Among sub-dimensional constraint factors, intrapersonal factors refer to characteristics such as individual tendencies; meanwhile, interpersonal factors refer to interactions with others, and structural factors refer to surrounding conditions or situations [12,33]. In addition, negotiation factors consist of time, knowledge acquisition, interpersonal relationships, and costs. These factors depend on whether an individual is willing to invest time, knowledge, and money to engage in certain activities or participate with others [15,19]. Motivation, the driving force behind human movement, is an important aspect of the constraint negotiation model [16] because motivation affects all purchasing processes and consumer behaviors [34].
Hubbard and Mannell [15] showed a causal relationship between the preceding variables of motivation, constraints, negotiations, and behavior in several different models, such as independence, negotiation buffer, constraint effects mitigation, and perceived constraint reduction. Among these four models, the current study chooses the constraint reduction model to examine if the level of constraints perceived by individuals, particularly through negotiations, can be minimized [15]. In other words, this model indicates that if only sufficient willingness to negotiate exists, the constraints perceived by individuals can be reduced.
The constraint negotiation model has been widely applied to identify how to reduce individuals’ perceived constraints in a variety of study contexts but not in the food service industry [35,36,37]. This study is the first attempt to apply the constraint negotiation theory to food-related consumer behavior. In this study, the first-order construct of negotiation factors included time, information acquisition, and cost. The first-order construct of constraints was composed of intrapersonal and structural factors. The study excluded interpersonal factors as they were not suitable for the study context.
Value, which refers to the advantages of a product or service consumed, has been analyzed in numerous studies. It is interchangeable with motivation and is the most representative predictor of consumer behavior [38,39]. Hence, this study employed constraint negotiation theory to examine the causal relationships between the PBMAs’ value, individual negotiations (time, information acquisition, and cost), constraints (intrapersonal and structural), and restaurant visit intention.

2.3. Relationships among the Constructs

2.3.1. Relationship between PBMAs’ Value and Restaurant Visit Intention

Kim et al. [40] analyzed the relationships between restaurants’ healthy food quality and value and customers’ revisit intention and found that the former enhanced the latter. Curvelo et al. [41] conducted a study on organic food consumption behavior and found that the emotional, economic, and social values of organic food have positive effects on purchase intention. Amelia and Hidayatullah [42] found that the luxury value of a sky lounge restaurant has a positive effect on behavior intention. In Watanabe et al.’s [43] study on organic food consumption behavior of Brazilian consumers, each of the social and economic values of organic food was found to have a positive effect on purchase intention. Moreover, Yoo et al. [44] analyzed the relationships between food healthiness and hedonic and utilitarian value and customers’ revisit intention toward Korean grocerants. They indicated that both hedonic and utilitarian values improve customers’ revisit intention. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:
Hypothesis 1.
Consumer perceived value of PBMAs positively affects restaurant visit intention.

2.3.2. Relationship between PBMAs’ Value and Negotiations

Winter Falk et al. [45] revealed in their study on the food selection behavior of senior people that values related to food nutrition, convenience, sensory attributes, and price together influence an individual’s food choice processes. Furst et al. [46] explained that various values of food, such as taste and price, influence negotiations in food selection processes. Sualakamala and Huffman [47] studied food selection behavior and stated that specific values such as taste, quality, and price of food activate the negotiation process. Roszkowska et al. [34] explained that individuals consciously approach valuable objects and begin negotiations in a decision-making process. They argued that more effective marketing strategies could be developed only when the value and motivation-related factors of consumers are well-identified [34]. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was established as follows:
Hypothesis 2.
Consumer perceived value of PBMAs positively affects negotiations.

2.3.3. Relationships between Consumers’ Negotiations and Restaurant Visit Intention

Hubbard and Mannell [15] stated that negotiation factors have a positive effect on individual behavior. In addition, Son et al. [19] confirmed that negotiation leads to individuals’ positive behavior. Jun and Kyle [48] explained that negotiations have a positive effect on individual participation behavior in leisure activities. A more recent study by Choi et al. [49] found that negotiations have a positive effect on participation behavior in virtual golf games. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 3.
Negotiations for consumption of PBMAs positively affect restaurant visit intention.

2.3.4. Relationship between Negotiations and Constraints

Hubbard and Mannell [15] stated that negotiations significantly reduce constraints. Son et al. [19] also examined the relationship between these two variables and revealed that negotiations minimize constraint factors in a specific situation. Hwang and Lee [50] revealed that negotiation factors significantly reduce individuals’ perceived constraints to participate in leisure sports. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:
Hypothesis 4.
Negotiations for consumption of PBMAs negatively affect constraints.

2.3.5. Relationship between Constraints and Restaurant Visit Intention

Hubbard and Mannell [15] stated that constraint factors negatively affect individual behavior. Son et al. [19] also revealed that constraints in certain situations negatively affect individual behavior. Jun and Kyle [48] found that constraint factors negatively affect individual participation in leisure activities. Further, Choi et al. [49] found that constraint factors negatively affect game participation behavior toward virtual reality games. Accordingly, the following hypothesis was established:
Hypothesis 5.
Constraints on consumption of PBMAs negatively affect restaurant visit intention.

2.3.6. Moderating Role of Vegetarians vs. Non-Vegetarians

Vegetarian populations worldwide are constantly increasing, and the level of vegetarianism can be classified into several stages [51]. While vegans consume plant-based food only, some vegetarians consume fish, eggs, and dairy products as well [2]. A flexitarian is a vegetarian at a lower level than the aforementioned [51]. In addition to vegetarian meals, flexitarians occasionally consume meat [51]. There are also various further classifications of vegetarians [52].
Povey et al. [53] analyzed the eating habits of carnivores, vegetarians, and vegans. The majority of them show positive and high confidence in their own eating habits. However, each group reacts negatively to the eating habits of the other groups. These results imply significant differences between the groups according to their usual eating habits. Phua et al. [2] conducted a study on vegetarianism among American consumers and analyzed the relationship between their eating habits. They confirmed the moderating effect of the norm toward vegetarianism. In particular, consumers who do not eat meat are more positively influenced by the norm toward vegetarianism. In a subsequent study on vegetarianism, Phua et al. [54] analyzed the norm toward vegetarianism as a moderating variable and confirmed its moderating effect on the relationship between the brand presence of a product and the message type (altruistic vs. egoistic). In particular, when the brand and altruistic messages of the product are presented simultaneously, the moderating effect of the norm toward vegetarianism on attitude is significant and positive.
The current study analyzed vegetarians. Vegetarians consume vegetables, along with dairy products, and sometimes eggs, but not meat [52]. This study is an attempt to expand the literature and provide a theoretical foundation by conducting a multigroup analysis between vegetarians and non-vegetarians for all the paths. Therefore, Hypothesis 6 was established as follows (see Figure 1).
Hypothesis 6a.
“Vegetarian” plays a moderating role in the relationship between PBMAs’ value and restaurant visit intention.
Hypothesis 6b.
“Vegetarian” plays a moderating role in the relationship between PBMAs’ value and negotiations.
Hypothesis 6c.
“Vegetarian” plays a moderating role in the relationship between negotiations and restaurant visit intention.
Hypothesis 6d.
“Vegetarian” plays a moderating role in the relationship between negotiations and constraints.
Hypothesis 6e.
“Vegetarian” plays a moderating role in the relationship between constraints and restaurant visit intention.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Data Collection and Participants

Data were collected from Korean consumers aged 18 or above in the fourth week of January 2022. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, data were collected with the help of an online survey company. The survey company introduced the definition of PBMAs to Korean consumers through e-mail along with the purpose of this study. Moreover, informed consent was obtained after the purpose of this study was explained to the survey participants. The survey was voluntary as it was conducted only among participants who agreed to respond through e-mail and in a self-administered manner using the convenience sampling method. Additionally, the survey company provided a small reward to the participants as a token of gratitude. Furthermore, the participants were assured that this survey would be used for research purposes only.

3.2. Survey Instrument and Measures

The four questions on the PBMAs’ value were developed based on Lea and Worsley [55]. In addition, four questions each on time, information acquisition, and the cost of negotiations, as well as three questions each on intrapersonal factors and structural factors of constraints, were adapted from Hubbard and Mannell [15]. Four questions on restaurant visit intention were developed based on Han and Yang [56]. Further, based on Hubbard and Mannell [15], time, information acquisition, and cost were first-order factors underlying a second-order factor of negotiations. Intrapersonal and structural factors were first-order factors underlying a second-order factor of constraints. All questionnaires were completed through minimal word modification, which was suitable for the subject of this study. All questions were rated using a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 3 = normal, 5 = strongly agree). Based on the measurement items, a confirmatory factor analysis of the AMOS program was performed to confirm the convergent validity and discriminant validity of each construct, and it was verified that the average variance extracted (AVE) was 0.5 or more, and composite reliability (CR) was 0.7 or more. In addition, to confirm internal consistency, the Cronbach’s alpha value for each construct was confirmed through reliability analysis on SPSS.
The questionnaire was first developed in English and then translated into Korean by faculty members of a hospitality management institute fluent in both Korean and English. The final questionnaire was completed after revising and supplementing the contents.
The survey was conducted in four stages through e-mail:
  • In the first step, the purpose of the study was explained to the participants, indicated that anonymity would be guaranteed, and informed consent was obtained online.
  • In the second step, the concept of vegetarians was explained, and vegetarian participants were identified for the purpose of multigroup analysis.
  • In the third step, general questions about all the constructs (e.g., PBMAs’ value, time, information, cost, intra-personal, structural factors, and restaurant visit intention) of this study were presented.
  • Finally, six questions related to demographics were asked.
An equal ratio of vegetarians to non-vegetarians was maintained in the data collection to allow for performing a multigroup analysis. In addition, there was no missing data, and four samples that responded with the same point for almost all questions were removed as outliers that compromised the accuracy of the study. Therefore, 315 out of a total of 319 samples were used for the final analysis. Data could be collected safely and conveniently in a short period through a survey company with the largest number of panels in Korea.
Frequency, descriptive statistics, and reliability analyses were performed using SPSS, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), structural equation model analysis (SEM), and multigroup analysis (MGA) were performed using AMOS.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Sample Characteristics

Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the participants. Regarding age, 31.4% of the participants were in their 30s, 29.8% in their 40s, and 25.4% in their 50s. Regarding gender, the number of men (49.2%) and women (50.8%) were almost similar. Regarding marital status, the difference between the number of unmarried (51.4%) and married (47.6%) participants was not significant. Regarding educational background, the proportion of participants who attended or graduated from a four-year university was much higher than the others (58.4%). Of the total participants, 32.1% reported their monthly income to be between USD 2001–3000, and most of the participants (45.7%) were office workers.

4.2. Validity and Reliability of the Measurements

As seen in Table 2, the CR values of all constructs showed a distribution of 0.796 to 0.924, and the AVE values ranged from 0.566 to 0.754, supporting convergent validity [57]. Additionally, the reliability analysis revealed that all Cronbach’s alpha values had a distribution of 0.794–0.924; thus, the reliability of the constructs was evaluated as appropriate [57].
Table 3 shows the results of testing for discriminant validity. Almost all correlation coefficients were found to be smaller than the square root values of AVE. However, the correlation coefficient in the relationships between “PBMAs’ value” and “time” and “time” and “information acquisition” was higher than the AVE square root value; thus, an alternative analysis (correlation coefficient ± 2 × standard error) was performed only for these two relationships. The relationship between PBMAs’ value and time showed a distribution of 0.68–0.912, and the relationship between time and information acquisition showed a distribution of 0.684–0.928 in the confidence interval. Since 1 was not included in the confidence interval, there was no serious issue regarding the discriminant validity of the constructs [58].

4.3. Results of Testing Hypotheses 1–5

Table 4 shows the results of testing the study hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 was supported because PBMAs’ value had a positive effect on visit intention (β = 0.375, p < 0.01). This result is consistent with Kim et al. [40]’s findings that the value of healthy food sold in restaurants increases customers’ intention to revisit. In addition, the relationships in the results are similar to the results of Yoo et al. [44] that the perceived value of grocery purchases increases the intention to revisit grocery stores. Hypothesis 2 was supported because PBMAs’ value had a positive effect on negotiations (β = 0.934, p < 0.001). This supports Sualakamala and Huffman [47], who indicated that the value of food in the food consumption process is the driving force in stimulating consumers’ negotiations. Hypothesis 3 was supported because negotiations had a positive effect on visit intention (β = 0.4, p < 0.01). This result is consistent with Choi et al. [49]’s findings that negation factors increase consumers’ behavioral intentions. Hypothesis 4 was supported because negotiations were found to have significantly lower constraints (β = −0.524, p < 0.001). This result is consistent with Hwang and Lee [50]’s study that the negotiation factor lowers the constraint factor. Hypothesis 5 was supported because constraints were found to significantly inhibit visit intention (β = −0.089, p < 0.05). This result is consistent with Choi et al. [49]’s results that constraint factors lower people’s behavior.
In summary, we derive significant results for the relationships between PBMA’s value and restaurant visit intention, PBMA’s value and negotiations, negotiations and restaurant visit intention, negotiations and constraints, and constraints and restaurant visit intention. All hypotheses were supported as proposed. However, due to this study’s novel application of constraint negotiation theory to food-related consumer behavior, the relationship between negotiations and restaurant visit intention, negotiations and constraints, and constraints and restaurant visit intention were based on previous studies in leisure sports, not food. Further, our results present implications that can be applied in the restaurant and the hospitality industry.

4.4. Results of Testing Hypothesis 6

Table 5 presents the results of the multigroup analysis. The multigroup analysis was performed by dividing the study respondents into two groups: vegetarians and non-vegetarians. First, in the relationship between PBMAs’ value and negotiations, although both groups showed a high level of negotiations driven by PBMAs’ value, this effect was higher in the non-vegetarian group (vegetarian group: β = 0.899, p < 0.001; non-vegetarian group: β = 0.943, p < 0.001). Next, a moderating effect was observed in the relationship between negotiations and constraints in both groups. Specifically, negotiations lowered constraints in the vegetarian group more significantly than in the non-vegetarian group (vegetarian group: β = −0.670, p < 0.001; non-vegetarian group: β = −0.385, p < 0.05). Indeed, in quantitative studies in the field of food-related consumer behavior, few studies have performed multigroup analyses with vegetarians and non-vegetarians as a moderating variable. Thus, this study provides important basic data that can be applied in related research.

5. Conclusions

In modern society, various marketing strategies have been developed and presented based on the concept of sustainability in various aspects such as environment, ethics, technology, health, economy, and markets. However, without a clear definition of sustainability, these strategies are no longer attracting consumer attention [59]. Several researchers have stressed the need for a green consumption and sustainability revolution to create a cleaner world [59,60]. In line with this social trend, this study focused on the PBMAs’ value, which is currently attracting global attention. This is the first study that applies the constraint negotiation theory in the field of food service-related consumer behavior research to derive meaningful insights. As theorized in this study, the causal relationships between value, negotiations (time, information, and cost), constraints (intrapersonal and structural), and visit intention toward restaurants specializing in PBMAs were identified. An additional analysis of the moderating effect between the vegetarian and non-vegetarian groups was also confirmed in two paths. To date, quantitative research on PBMA consumption has been insufficient despite its importance; therefore, this study provides valuable insights. Results derived from this study could contribute to the revitalization of PBMA consumption. They can also help reduce global environmental problems, improve personal health, and contribute to animal welfare via increased PBMA consumption. Moreover, this study can also contribute to the growth and development of the food service and hospitality industries. However, more diverse variables should be used for the analysis, and more research should be actively conducted in the future. Such in-depth research can result in a better future for the meat substitution industry, which can contribute both to the betterment of our society and the environment.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

This study attempted to examine whether PBMAs are attracting attention for positive reasons, such as environmental issues, personal health promotion, and animal welfare. This study provides a theoretical foundation in the fields of food service and hospitality, where related research has been insufficient. The study offers three major theoretical contributions. First, this study has academic significance as it analyzed the relationship between the PBMAs’ value and restaurant visit intention in a field where there are relatively few quantitative studies on consumer behavior toward PBMAs.
Second, this study is the first attempt to apply the constraint negotiation model [15] in the field of food service-related consumer behavior. Further, the study extends the argument of Son et al. [19] that constraint and negotiation factors coexist in all social phenomena. In addition, as theorized by Hubbard and Mannell [15], significant causal relationships were verified for all paths.
Third, this study attempted to analyze the relationship between the PBMAs’ value and the constraint negotiation theory by adding vegetarians and non-vegetarians as moderating variables. Various studies on vegetarians have been conducted [61,62,63], but few studies have analyzed the differences by using vegetarians as a moderating variable. The proportion of vegetarians as a consumer group is gradually increasing in modern society. This study has academic significance as it establishes meaningful differences between vegetarians and non-vegetarians through a multigroup analysis. In summary, this study is motivated by the fact that although prior studies on PBMAs have examined the nutrition and food engineering aspects, there is a lack of quantitative studies analyzed in the field of consumer behavior despite its importance. As previously mentioned, our study is theoretically significant in that it investigated consumer behavioral intentions for PBMAs, and these new variables and theories provide new insights that previous studies have been unable to produce.

5.2. Managerial Implications

First, the PBMAs’ value was found to have a positive effect on visit intention toward restaurants specializing in PBMAs and negotiation factors. When consumers are willing to recognize the positive PBMAs’ value, they are more likely to spend their time and money and obtain related information. Michel et al. [10] emphasized that sensory characteristics such as taste and texture must be established to promote the consumption of PBMAs further. Schreuders et al. [4] also stressed that to attract more consumers to PBMAs in a short period, the texture of PBMAs should be similar to that of real meat. People place a high value on PBMAs; however, this perception can only lead to higher visit intention toward restaurants in the future if the taste and quality of PBMAs improve and related research and development are accomplished from various perspectives. Yook [11] pointed out that Korean consumers in their 20s and 30s are reluctant to repurchase PBMAs due to their unsatisfactory taste. Many consumers and experts have presented the weak aspects of PBMAs [4,10].
Second, negotiation factors were found to have a positive effect on restaurant visit intention and reduce constraints. Therefore, consumers are expected to invest their time and money and choose PBMAs, showing a voluntary willingness to acquire information. Son et al. [19] stated that if an individual has a strong willingness to negotiate, constraints can be minimized. Currently, many food companies are focusing on the PBMA market, developing related products, and opening restaurants specializing in PBMA menus [11]. There is scope for further diversification of related products and restaurants. Hence, quality research and development should be prioritized. Next, it was found that an individual’s willingness to negotiate a PBMA (time, information acquisition, and cost) lowered the constraints that included intrapersonal aspects due to their tendency and the structural issues in their surroundings. Related industries should actively utilize advertisements to minimize constraints by further stimulating the willingness to negotiate, such as by informing consumers of the values of PBMAs.
Third, constraints were found to lower restaurant visit intention. Positive messages or campaigns should be developed and disseminated so that constraints related to individual proclivity or environmental factors do not negatively impact the consumption of PBMAs. Phua et al. [2] stated that the strategy of delivering messages to several vegetarian celebrities is vital for enhancing consumption behavior. However, they admitted that informing meat-eaters about the advantages of vegetarianism is difficult, so messages should be delivered from a long-term perspective.
Fourth, this study analyzed the moderating effect between vegetarians and non-vegetarians in an attempt to reflect this trend. This moderating effect was confirmed by two paths. First, regarding the relationship between the PBMAs’ values and negotiations, a positive influence was confirmed in both groups. However, the influence on the non-vegetarian group was higher, indicating that non-vegetarians are also reasonably aware of the PBMAs’ value. Marketing efforts are needed so that consumer perception can actually lead to restaurant visit intention for PBMAs. Hagmann et al. [30] stressed that it is very effective to create campaigns such as “Vegetarian Day” for the well-being of animals to promote various advantages of plant-based food consumption. Phua et al. [54] stated that it is very effective to repeatedly present information by actively utilizing social media to motivate people to choose foods such as PBMAs that contribute to the environment and society. In addition, their study also verified that consumption behavior increases further when promoting products and delivering positive messages simultaneously. Therefore, it is necessary to establish not only the presence of PBMA products in the meat market but also the fact that such PBMAs contribute to the health of consumers and the environment. If these marketing efforts are carried out in the long run, PBMA consumption can also be promoted for non-vegetarians.
Next, there was also a moderating effect in the relationship between negotiations and constraints, and it was found that both the vegetarian and non-vegetarian groups’ negotiation factors significantly decreased constraint factors. In particular, the vegetarian group’s willingness to negotiate more significantly lowered the constraints. This can be interpreted to imply that vegetarians perceive fewer constraints and highly recognize the PBMAs’ value. However, they more strongly control individual constraints through their willingness to invest their time and money in consumption and obtaining information. According to Hagmann et al. [30], vegans and vegetarians in Switzerland choose PBMAs for the following reasons: animal well-being, environmental concerns, and the excellent taste of PBMAs. This indicates ethical motivation as a key reason for consuming PBMAs for vegans and vegetarians and the influence of individual food knowledge in encouraging PBMA consumption. A significant effort, preparation, and investments in improving taste and nutrition and adopting food technology and marketing are needed in the future so that vegetarians can continue to negotiate and overcome any constraints related to PBMA consumption.
Finally, the realization of sustainability to meet human needs while using natural resources without compromise has become a key concern in modern society, where individuals, societies, countries, industries, and academia must jointly present necessary solutions to prevent further climate change. D’Adamo et al. [59] stated that the common global theme that should be highlighted most in the current era is to create a low-carbon world. McManners [60] explained that building a low-carbon world requires individual habits and efforts to act eco-friendly in daily life and requires longer-term thinking and approach. Moreover, Guo and Bai [64] emphasized that it is important to present various environmental regulations and policies for a positive future environment, but it is the public that can exert the strongest influence on companies, governments, and society. Therefore, they explained that the public’s movement on environmental protection and improvement issues is the most important.
As such, the protection of the environment and natural resources has become a common concern around the world, and scholars present various views. This study focuses on PBMA to suggest various implications for this social trend, and it is hoped that PBMA consumption that can address concerns about the environment, human health, and animal welfare will reduce global greenhouse gas emissions and create an environment in which climate change can be minimized.

6. Limitations and Future Research

This study has several limitations. First, the present study analyzed only Korean consumers, thereby limiting the generalization of the results to the larger population in different regions. Second, the PBMA industry varies from country to country. Therefore, future research can explore any cultural differences by country in consumer behavioral intentions toward PBMAs. Third, in this study, a multigroup analysis was conducted between vegetarians and non-vegetarians. However, the vegetarian standard used in this study was pesco-vegetarian. As the levels of vegetarianism vary considerably, it is estimated that the results of the study will vary depending on the level. Hence, this is another limitation to generalizing the results of this study. Future studies to improve our natural environment in a more positive direction in terms of food distribution, economy, and engineering must be conducted in various fields based on more diverse targets to establish a low-carbon world where the effects of climate change are mitigated.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.-W.J.; methodology, M.C.; writing—original draft, H.-W.J.; writing—review and editing, M.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 14 05812 g001 550
Figure 1. Research model.
Figure 1. Research model.
Sustainability 14 05812 g001
Table
Table 1. Sample characteristics (n = 315).
Table 1. Sample characteristics (n = 315).
Characteristicsn (%)Characteristicsn (%)
Age (years) Monthly income
18–190 (0)≤$100030 (9.5)
20–2980 (25.4)$1001–$200038 (12.1)
30–3999 (31.4)$2001–$3000101 (32.1)
40–4994 (29.8)$3001–$400052 (16.5)
50–5933 (10.5)$4001–$500044 (14)
60 or older9 (2.9)>$500050 (15.9)
Gender Occupation
Men155 (49.2)Student35 (11.1)
Women160 (50.8)Office job144 (45.7)
Marital status Self-employed21 (6.7)
Unmarried162 (51.4)Professional job59 (18.7)
Married150 (47.6)Homemaker31 (9.8)
Other3 (1)Other25 (7.9)
Educational level
High school41 (13)
Two-year college52 (16.5)
University184 (58.4)
Graduate school38 (12.1)
Notes: Monthly income was calculated in US dollars, where 1 USD = 1198 Korean won, according to the exchange rate in February 2022.
Table
Table 2. Results of confirmatory factor analysis.
Table 2. Results of confirmatory factor analysis.
ConstructStandardized Loadingst-ValueCCR aAVE bCronbach’s Alpha
PBMAs’ value 0.8780.6440.882
PBMAs are healthier than real meat0.863Fixed
PBMAs are better for animal welfare than real meat0.78617.130 ***
PBMAs are better for the environment than real meat0.80417.819 ***
PBMAs have more nutritional benefits than real meat0.75315.983 ***
Time 0.8620.6110.873
I’m willing to invest my time to choose between PBMAs 0.744Fixed
I’m going to switch to PBMAs soon0.76919.342 ***
I can devote my time to PBMA consumption0.7413.338 ***
I can invest sufficient time for PBMA consumption0.86715.881 ***
Information acquisition 0.8890.6660.892
I tend to learn new information about PBMAs0.800Fixed
I’m interested in PBMA-related information0.80915.947 ***
I tend to constantly acquire PBMA-related information0.79615.657 ***
If it helps others, I’m willing to share PBMA-related information with people0.85917.267 ***
Cost 0.7960.5660.794
I’m thinking of spending more of my money on PBMA consumption0.764Fixed
I’m willing to pay for PBMA consumption0.7112.378 ***
I plan to consume PBMAs within my budget0.78113.705 ***
Intrapersonal 0.8540.6620.850
I am not that interested in PBMAs0.766Fixed
I can’t afford to eat PBMA0.87414.972 ***
I don’t like PBMAs0.79714.025 ***
Structural 0.8350.6300.832
I don’t have enough time to look for any restaurants specializing in PBMAs0.721Fixed
I’m too busy to look for any restaurants specializing in PBMAs0.87213.596 ***
I don’t have the right information about PBMAs0.7812.702 ***
Restaurant visit intention 0.9240.7540.924
I’m willing to visit a restaurant that serves PBMAs0.898Fixed
I’m willing to visit a restaurant that specializes in PBMAs0.88623.289 ***
I want to visit a restaurant that serves PBMAs0.79818.851 ***
I will visit more restaurants that serve PBMAs in the future0.88723.339 ***
Notes: χ2/df = 2.627, *** p < 0.001; root mean square residual (RMR) = 0.046; goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.846; Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = 0.919; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.932; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.933; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.072; a CCR: composite construct reliability; b AVE: average variance extracted.
Table
Table 3. Discriminant validity and correlations.
Table 3. Discriminant validity and correlations.
Construct1234567MeanSD a
1. PBMAs’ value0.802 3.4220.800
2. Time0.7960.781 3.1780.819
3. Information acquisition0.6940.8060.816 3.0040.870
4. Cost0.7190.6660.6720.752 3.3830.794
5. Intrapersonal−0.351−0.247−0.229−0.3620.813 2.1740.715
6. Structural−0.418−0.387−0.376−0.4340.5850.793 2.3000.711
7. Visit Intention0.7660.7100.6140.651−0.346−0.4110.8683.3380.881
Notes: The diagonal bold values are the root square values of average variance extracted (AVE), the diagonal bottom is the correlation coefficient, and a SD is standard deviation.
Table
Table 4. Results of testing Hypotheses 1–5.
Table 4. Results of testing Hypotheses 1–5.
RelationshipsβBS.E.t-Valuep-ValueResults
H1Value → Visit intention0.3750.3890.1452.685 **0.007Supported
H2Value → Negotiations0.9340.7760.05414.241 ***0.000Supported
H3Negotiations → Visit intention0.4000.5000.1842.714 **0.007Supported
H4Negotiations → Constraints−0.524−0.3440.059−5.845 ***0.000Supported
H5Constraints → Visit intention−0.089−0.1700.081−2.093 *0.036Supported
Notes: χ2/df = 2.259, p < 0.001; root mean square residual (RMR) = 0.044; goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.865; adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) = 0.828; Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = 0.937; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.946; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.947; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.063; *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.
Table
Table 5. Results of testing Hypothesis 6.
Table 5. Results of testing Hypothesis 6.
Structural RelationshipVegetarians
(n = 155)		Non-Vegetarians (n = 160)FreeConstrained△χ2Results
β t-Value β t-Valueχ2(df = 512)χ2(df = 513)
H6a. V → VI0.3521.9430.1750.717999.691999.9450.254Not Supported
H6b. V → N0.8997.756 ***0.9439.320 ***999.6911004.7545.063Supported
H6c. N → VI0.3001.4860.6082.333 *999.6911001.9012.21Not Supported
H6d. N → C−0.670−5.457 ***−0.385−2.544 *999.6911004.4954.804Supported
H6e. C → VI−0.246−2.679 **−0.029−0.588999.6911001.2751.584Not Supported
Notes: V: plant-based meat alternatives’ value; N: negotiations; C: constraints; VI: visit intention; *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.
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Jang, H.-W.; Cho, M. Application of the Constraint Negotiation Theory to the Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Food Service Business: An Exploration of Perceived Value and Negotiation–Constraint–Visit Intention Relationships. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5812. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105812

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Jang H-W, Cho M. Application of the Constraint Negotiation Theory to the Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Food Service Business: An Exploration of Perceived Value and Negotiation–Constraint–Visit Intention Relationships. Sustainability. 2022; 14(10):5812. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105812

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Jang, Ha-Won, and Meehee Cho. 2022. "Application of the Constraint Negotiation Theory to the Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Food Service Business: An Exploration of Perceived Value and Negotiation–Constraint–Visit Intention Relationships" Sustainability 14, no. 10: 5812. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105812

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