Connection to Nature Boosts Adolescents’ Mental Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Collection
2.2. Survey Instrument
2.3. Data Preparation and Scale Development
2.4. Hypothesis Testing
3. Results
3.1. Sample
3.2. Activity Participation, Connection to Nature, and Mental Well-Being
3.3. Mediation Analyses
3.4. Comparing Mediation Coefficients before and during COVID-19
3.5. Demographic Differences in Connection to Nature
3.5.1. Differences in Connection to Natures across Age
3.5.2. Differences in Connection to Nature across Community Type
3.5.3. Differences in Mental Well-Being across Community Type during the Pandemic
3.5.4. Differences in Mental Well-Being across Age during the Pandemic
4. Discussion
Recommendations for Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Survey Scales | Survey Response Items | Coding for Response Items |
---|---|---|
Nature Experience and Outdoor Play Activity Participation | Never | 0 |
Now and then | 1 | |
Often | 2 | |
Connection to Nature (Nature Relatedness scale) | Disagree | −1 |
Neither/neutral | 0 | |
Agree | 1 | |
Mental Well-Being (Subjective Well-Being scale) | At no time | 1 |
Some of the time | 2 | |
Most of the time | 3 | |
All of the time | 4 | |
Gender | Male | 0 |
Female | 1 | |
Non-binary | 2 | |
Identify another way | 3 | |
Prefer not to answer | 4 | |
Race | White | 0 |
Black | 1 | |
Hispanic | 2 | |
Asian/Pacific Islander | 3 | |
Native American | 4 | |
Other | 5 | |
Prefer not to answer | 6 | |
Two or more races | 7 | |
Age | 10 years | 1 |
11 years | 2 | |
12 years | 3 | |
13 years | 4 | |
14 years | 5 | |
15 years | 6 | |
16 years | 7 | |
17 years | 8 | |
18 years | 9 | |
Annual Household Income | Less than $30,000 | 1 |
$30,000–$49,999 | 2 | |
$50,000–$74,999 | 3 | |
$75,000–$99,999 | 4 | |
$100,000–$149,999 | 5 | |
$150,000 or more | 6 | |
Prefer not to answer | 7 | |
Community Type | Rural | 1 |
Small city or town | 2 | |
Suburb near a large city | 3 | |
Large city | 4 | |
Region | South | 1 |
West | 2 | |
Midwest | 3 | |
Northeast | 4 |
Variables | Connection to Nature before COVID-19 Path A | Mental Well-Being before COVID-19 Path C | Mental Well-Being before COVID-19 Path B and C’ | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | |
Nature experience activities before COVID-19 | 0.46 | 0.46 | <0.001 *** | 0.23 | 0.20 | <0.001 *** | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.153 |
Connection to nature score before COVID-19 | 0.34 | 0.31 | <0.001 *** | ||||||
Race: White (Reference) | |||||||||
Race: Black | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.583 | 0.29 | 0.15 | <0.001 *** | 0.30 | 0.16 | <0.001 *** |
Race: Hispanic | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.058 + | 0.22 | 0.12 | 0.004 ** | 0.18 | 0.10 | 0.016 * |
Race: Asian/Pacific Islander | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.16 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.877 | −0.03 | −0.01 | 0.792 |
Race: Native American | 0.21 | 0.04 | 0.323 | −0.12 | −0.02 | 0.628 | −0.19 | −0.03 | 0.422 |
Race: Other | 0.19 | 0.03 | 0.378 | 0.24 | 0.04 | 0.342 | 0.17 | 0.03 | 0.468 |
Race: Prefer not to answer | 0.02 | 0.002 | 0.94 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.794 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.802 |
Race: Multi-race | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.139 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 0.055 + | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.121 |
Age | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.041 * | −0.03 | −0.13 | 0.001 *** | −0.04 | −0.15 | <0.001 * |
Gender | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.191 | −0.11 | −0.09 | 0.018 * | −0.13 | −0.11 | 0.004 * |
Income: <$30,000 (Reference) | |||||||||
Income: $30,000–$49,999 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.478 | 0.23 | 0.13 | 0.021 * | 0.21 | 0.12 | 0.028 * |
Income: $50,000–$74,999 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.875 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.403 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.409 |
Income: $75,000–$99,999 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.494 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.209 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 0.129 |
Income: $100,000–$149,999 | −0.03 | −0.02 | 0.724 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.258 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.198 |
Income: $150,000 or more | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.485 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.105 | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.139 |
Income: Prefer not to answer | 0.01 | 0.003 | 0.929 | 0.05 | 0.013 | 0.765 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.776 |
Home density: Rural (Reference) | |||||||||
Home density: Small city or town | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.472 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.543 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.394 |
Home density: Suburb | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.401 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.792 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.983 |
Home density: Large city | −0.01 | −0.003 | 0.934 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.353 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.32 |
Region: South (Reference) | |||||||||
Region: West | −0.02 | −0.02 | 0.687 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.444 | −0.04 | −0.03 | 0.499 |
Region: Midwest | −0.02 | −0.01 | 0.781 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.358 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.381 |
Region: Northeast | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.733 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.335 | −0.07 | −0.05 | 0.267 |
Intercept | −0.08 | 0.411 | 2.07 | <0.001 | 2.10 | <0.001 | |||
Adjusted R2 | 0.2063 | 0.0815 | 0.1572 | ||||||
N | 624 | 624 | 624 |
Variables | Connection to Nature during COVID-19 Path A | Mental Well-Being during COVID-19 Path C | Mental Well-Being during COVID-19 Path B and C’ | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | |
Nature experience activities during COVID-19 | 0.42 | 0.35 | <0.001 *** | 0.39 | 0.26 | <0.001 *** | 0.22 | 0.14 | <0.001 *** |
Connection to nature score during COVID-19 | 0.41 | 0.34 | <0.001 *** | ||||||
Race: White (Reference) | |||||||||
Race: Black | −0.15 | −0.08 | 0.061 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.152 | 0.20 | 0.09 | 0.032 * |
Race: Hispanic | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.853 | 0.15 | 0.07 | 0.109 | 0.16 | 0.07 | 0.08 + |
Race: Asian/Pacific Islander | −0.12 | −0.05 | 0.209 | −0.09 | −0.03 | 0.466 | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.733 |
Race: Native American | 0.22 | 0.03 | 0.354 | −0.22 | −0.03 | 0.46 | −0.31 | −0.04 | 0.274 |
Race: Other | 0.36 | 0.06 | 0.137 | −0.21 | −0.03 | 0.495 | −0.35 | −0.05 | 0.221 |
Race: Prefer not to answer | −0.38 | −0.04 | 0.258 | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.867 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.835 |
Race: Multi-race | −0.09 | −0.04 | 0.347 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.807 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.563 |
Age | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.253 | −0.02 | −0.08 | 0.035 * | −0.03 | −0.10 | 0.009 ** |
Gender | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.181 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.387 | −0.07 | −0.05 | 0.172 |
Income: <$30,000 (Reference) | |||||||||
Income: $30,000–$49,999 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.957 | 0.21 | 0.10 | 0.091 + | 0.21 | 0.10 | 0.078 |
Income: $50,000–$74,999 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.447 | 0.30 | 0.15 | 0.012 * | 0.27 | 0.14 | 0.016 * |
Income: $75,000–$99,999 | −0.04 | −0.03 | 0.658 | 0.33 | 0.17 | 0.005 ** | 0.35 | 0.18 | 0.002 ** |
Income: $100,000–$149,999 | −0.03 | −0.02 | 0.734 | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.159 | 0.18 | 0.10 | 0.109 |
Income: $150,000 or more | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.834 | 0.24 | 0.12 | 0.056 + | 0.24 | 0.11 | 0.051 + |
Income: Prefer not to answer | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.565 | 0.17 | 0.04 | 0.396 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 0.484 |
Home density: Rural (Reference) | |||||||||
Home density: Small city or town | −0.18 | −0.12 | 0.015 * | 0.13 | 0.07 | 0.176 | 0.20 | 0.11 | 0.025 * |
Home density: Suburb | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.356 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.354 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.506 |
Home density: Large city | −0.15 | −0.10 | 0.049 * | −0.06 | −0.03 | 0.552 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.965 |
Region: South (Reference) | |||||||||
Region: West | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.857 | −0.11 | −0.06 | 0.181 | −0.11 | −0.06 | 0.141 |
Region: Midwest | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.911 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.543 | −0.06 | −0.03 | 0.497 |
Region: Northeast | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.706 | −0.10 | −0.05 | 0.211 | −0.11 | −0.06 | 0.148 |
Intercept | 0.02 | 0.831 | 1.50 | <0.001 | 1.49 | . | <0.001 | ||
Adjusted R2 | 0.1492 | 0.0798 | 0.1740 | ||||||
N | 624 | 624 | 624 |
Variables | Connection to Nature before COVID-19 Path A | Mental Well-Being before COVID-19 Path C | Mental Well-Being before COVID-19 Path B and C’ | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | |
Outdoor play activities before COVID-19 | 0.48 | 0.47 | <0.001 *** | 0.38 | 0.34 | <0.001 *** | 0.26 | 0.23 | <0.001 *** |
Connection to nature score before COVID-19 | 0.26 | 0.23 | <0.001 *** | ||||||
Race: White (Reference) | |||||||||
Race: Black | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.286 | 0.26 | 0.13 | 0.001 *** | 0.28 | 0.14 | <0.001 *** |
Race: Hispanic | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.419 | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.032 * | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.045 * |
Race: Asian/Pacific Islander | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.154 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.951 | −0.03 | −0.01 | 0.791 |
Race: Native American | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.508 | −0.19 | −0.03 | 0.425 | −0.22 | −0.04 | 0.332 |
Race: Other | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.564 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.454 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.526 |
Race: Prefer not to answer | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.674 | 0.17 | 0.02 | 0.606 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.666 |
Race: Multi-race | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.164 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 0.048 * | 0.15 | 0.06 | 0.089 |
Age | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.002 ** | −0.03 | −0.10 | 0.007 ** | −0.03 | −0.13 | 0.001 *** |
Gender | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.245 | −0.10 | −0.08 | 0.028 * | −0.11 | −0.09 | 0.012 * |
Income: <$30,000 (Reference) | |||||||||
Income: $30,000–$49,999 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.28 | 0.24 | 0.14 | 0.012 * | 0.22 | 0.12 | 0.02 * |
Income: $50,000–$74,999 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.48 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.287 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.353 |
Income: $75,000–$99,999 | −0.03 | −0.02 | 0.713 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.217 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.177 |
Income: $100,000–$149,999 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.938 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.221 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.216 |
Income: $150,000 or more | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.307 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.098 + | 0.14 | 0.08 | 0.144 |
Income: Prefer not to answer | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.998 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.895 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.892 |
Home density: Rural (Reference) | |||||||||
Home density: Small city or town | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.17 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.619 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.409 |
Home density: Suburb | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.867 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.879 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.907 |
Home density: Large city | −0.03 | −0.02 | 0.654 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.438 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.369 |
Region: South (Reference) | |||||||||
Region: West | −0.03 | −0.03 | 0.53 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.293 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.351 |
Region: Midwest | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.288 | −0.10 | −0.06 | 0.147 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.214 |
Region: Northeast | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.943 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.203 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.187 |
Intercept | −0.34 | 0.001 | 1.77 | <0.001 | 1.85 | . | <0.001 | ||
Adjusted R2 | 0.2146 | 0.1539 | 0.1953 | ||||||
N | 624 | 624 | 624 |
Variables | Connection to Nature during COVID-19 Path A | Mental Well-Being during COVID-19 Path C | Mental Well-Being during COVID-19 Path B and C’ | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | Beta | Std. Beta | p | |
Outdoor play activities during COVID-19 | 0.44 | 0.41 | <0.001 *** | 0.53 | 0.40 | <0.001 *** | 0.39 | 0.29 | <0.001 *** |
Connection to nature score during COVID-19 | 0.33 | 0.27 | <0.001 *** | ||||||
Race: White (Reference) | |||||||||
Race: Black | −0.11 | −0.06 | 0.137 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 0.052 + | 0.22 | 0.09 | 0.016 * |
Race: Hispanic | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.594 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.162 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.111 |
Race: Asian/Pacific Islander | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.697 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.855 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.767 |
Race: Native American | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.646 | −0.37 | −0.05 | 0.196 | −0.41 | −0.05 | 0.143 |
Race: Other | 0.35 | 0.06 | 0.129 | −0.16 | −0.02 | 0.574 | −0.28 | −0.04 | 0.32 |
Race: Prefer not to answer | −0.40 | −0.05 | 0.216 | −0.15 | −0.01 | 0.707 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.959 |
Race: Multi-race | −0.03 | −0.01 | 0.731 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.306 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.249 |
Age | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.041 * | −0.02 | −0.05 | 0.149 | −0.02 | −0.07 | 0.041 * |
Gender | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.369 | −0.07 | −0.05 | 0.205 | −0.08 | −0.06 | 0.12 |
Income: <$30,000 (Reference) | |||||||||
Income: $30,000–$49,999 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.962 | 0.20 | 0.09 | 0.088 + | 0.20 | 0.09 | 0.079 + |
Income: $50,000–$74,999 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.417 | 0.29 | 0.15 | 0.009 * | 0.27 | 0.14 | 0.014 * |
Income: $75,000–$99,999 | −0.10 | −0.06 | 0.289 | 0.25 | 0.13 | 0.026 * | 0.29 | 0.15 | 0.01 ** |
Income: $100,000–$149,999 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.466 | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.341 | 0.13 | 0.07 | 0.236 |
Income: $150,000 or more | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.976 | 0.21 | 0.10 | 0.083 + | 0.21 | 0.10 | 0.074 + |
Income: Prefer not to answer | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.91 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.915 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.888 |
Home density: Rural (Reference) | |||||||||
Home density: Small city or town | −0.20 | −0.13 | 0.005 ** | 0.13 | 0.07 | 0.142 | 0.20 | 0.11 | 0.023 * |
Home density: Suburb | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.806 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.481 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.508 |
Home density: Large city | −0.15 | −0.10 | 0.036 * | −0.03 | −0.02 | 0.739 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.82 |
Region: South (Reference) | |||||||||
Region: West | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.799 | −0.10 | −0.06 | 0.17 | −0.11 | −0.06 | 0.136 |
Region: Midwest | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.837 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.338 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.349 |
Region: Northeast | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.47 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.324 | −0.09 | −0.05 | 0.223 |
Intercept | −0.10 | 0.33 | 1.28 | <0.001 | 1.32 | <0.001 | |||
Adjusted R2 | 0.1927 | 0.1678 | 0.2242 | ||||||
N | 624 | 624 | 624 |
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Items | Activity Means | Nature Experience Factor Loadings | Outdoor Play Factor Loadings |
---|---|---|---|
Nature experience activities before COVID-19 | 0.68 | ||
Paddling (canoeing, kayaking) | 0.51 | 0.78 | 0.21 |
Hunting | 0.36 | 0.78 | 0.03 |
Camping | 0.71 | 0.74 | 0.22 |
Fishing | 0.66 | 0.73 | 0.17 |
Hiking | 0.82 | 0.67 | 0.29 |
Wildlife viewing | 0.81 | 0.69 | 0.25 |
Playing in the woods (building forts, playing games in the woods) | 0.88 | 0.54 * | 0.51 * |
Outdoor play activities before COVID-19 | 1.2 | ||
Bicycling outside | 1.22 | 0.22 | 0.76 |
Playing sports outside | 1.42 | 0.07 | 0.70 |
Going for walks or runs outside | 1.36 | 0.17 | 0.75 |
Swimming outside | 1.16 | 0.16 | 0.67 |
Skating (skateboard, rollerblades, scooter) | 0.84 | 0.42 | 0.61 |
Eigenvalues | 5.23 | 1.52 | |
% of variance explained | 31.5% | 24.8% | |
Cronbach’s alpha | 0.86 | 0.78 |
Items | Nature Relatedness Means | Nature Relatedness Factor Loadings |
---|---|---|
Nature relatedness scale before COVID-19 | 0.38 | |
My relationship to nature is an important part of who I am. | 0.24 | 0.85 |
I feel very connected to all living things and the Earth. | 0.28 | 0.85 |
My favorite places are outside in nature. | 0.36 | 0.82 |
I think about how what I do affects the Earth. | 0.31 | 0.79 |
I spend time outdoors whenever I can. | 0.45 | 0.77 |
I enjoy being outside in nature. | 0.65 | 0.71 |
Eigenvalue | 3.81 | |
% of variance explained | 63% | |
Cronbach’s alpha | 0.88 |
Items | Subjective Well-Being Means | Subjective Well-Being Factor Loadings |
---|---|---|
SWB scale before COVID-19 | 2.21 | |
Cheerful and in good spirits | 2.25 | 0.87 |
Calm and relaxed | 2.13 | 0.84 |
Active and full of energy | 2.60 | 0.82 |
Interested and curious about the world around me | 2.19 | 0.80 |
Eigenvalue | 2.78 | |
% of variance explained | 70% | |
Cronbach’s alpha | 0.85 |
Variable | N | % | |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 306 | 49.0% |
Female | 314 | 50.3% | |
Non-binary | 3 | 0.5% | |
Race | White | 373 | 59.8% |
Black | 71 | 11.4% | |
Hispanic | 78 | 12.5% | |
Asian/Pacific Islander | 42 | 6.7% | |
Native American | 6 | 1.0% | |
Other | 6 | 1.0% | |
Two or more races | 45 | 7.2% | |
Age | 10 years | 78 | 12.5% |
11 years | 70 | 11.2% | |
12 years | 63 | 10.1% | |
13 years | 79 | 12.7% | |
14 years | 77 | 12.3% | |
15 years | 53 | 8.5% | |
16 years | 81 | 13.0% | |
17 years | 76 | 12.2% | |
18 years | 47 | 7.5% | |
Income | Less than $30,000 | 60 | 9.6% |
$30,000–$49,999 | 87 | 13.9% | |
$50,000–$74,999 | 114 | 18.3% | |
$75,000–$99,999 | 114 | 18.3% | |
$100,000–$149,999 | 136 | 21.8% | |
$150,000 or more | 94 | 15.1% | |
Community | Rural area | 126 | 20.2% |
Small city or town | 126 | 20.2% | |
Suburb near a large city | 228 | 36.5% | |
Large city | 144 | 23.1% | |
Region | South | 252 | 40.4% |
West | 136 | 21.8% | |
Midwest | 106 | 17.0% | |
Northeast | 130 | 20.8% |
Variable | Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | Paired t Test | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | t | p | |
Nature experience activities (range 0–2) | 0.68 | 0.55 | 0.40 | 0.50 | 13.666 | <0.001 |
Outdoor play activities (range 0–2) | 1.20 | 0.55 | 0.68 | 0.57 | 18.333 | <0.001 |
Connection to nature (range −1–1) | 0.38 | 0.56 | 0.21 | 0.61 | 7.253 | <0.001 |
Mental well-being (range 0–4) | 2.21 | 0.62 | 1.75 | 0.75 | 14.870 | <0.001 |
Mediation Pathway | Beta before | Std. Error before | Beta during | Std. Error during | Z-Score | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nature experience activities | ||||||
Path A | 0.46 | 0.04 | 0.42 | 0.05 | 0.709 | 0.239 |
Path B | 0.34 | 0.05 | 0.41 | 0.05 | −1.063 | 0.144 |
Path C’ (direct effect) | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0.06 | −1.992 | 0.023 * |
Path C (total effect) | 0.23 | 0.04 | 0.39 | 0.06 | −1.182 | 0.119 |
Path AB (indirect effect) | 0.16 | 0.02 | 0.17 | 0.03 | −0.417 | 0.338 |
Outdoor play activities | ||||||
Path A | 0.48 | 0.04 | 0.44 | 0.04 | 0.600 | 0.274 |
Path B | 0.26 | 0.05 | 0.33 | 0.05 | −1.111 | 0.133 |
Path C’ (direct effect) | 0.26 | 0.05 | 0.39 | 0.05 | −2.063 | 0.020 * |
Path C (total effect) | 0.38 | 0.04 | 0.53 | 0.05 | −1.282 | 0.100 |
Path AB (indirect effect) | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.15 | 0.03 | −0.611 | 0.271 |
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Jackson, S.B.; Stevenson, K.T.; Larson, L.R.; Peterson, M.N.; Seekamp, E. Connection to Nature Boosts Adolescents’ Mental Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12297. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112297
Jackson SB, Stevenson KT, Larson LR, Peterson MN, Seekamp E. Connection to Nature Boosts Adolescents’ Mental Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability. 2021; 13(21):12297. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112297
Chicago/Turabian StyleJackson, S. Brent, Kathryn T. Stevenson, Lincoln R. Larson, M. Nils Peterson, and Erin Seekamp. 2021. "Connection to Nature Boosts Adolescents’ Mental Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic" Sustainability 13, no. 21: 12297. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112297
APA StyleJackson, S. B., Stevenson, K. T., Larson, L. R., Peterson, M. N., & Seekamp, E. (2021). Connection to Nature Boosts Adolescents’ Mental Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability, 13(21), 12297. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112297