Paleohydrogeology of the Karstic System of Fuentetoba Spring (Soria, Spain): An Interdisciplinary Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- -
- To determine the main characteristics of the paleohydrological evolution and speleogenesis of the karstic system during the late Tertiary and Quaternary and to demonstrate how the karst’s evolution affects the past and present aquifer hydrodynamics.
- -
- To build a chronological preliminary calcareous tufa frame associated with the springs in addition to the representative speleothems of the cave network, in order to evaluate the paleohydrological and paleoclimatic significance of the obtained results; the article aims also to connect the tufa accumulations with speleothems (paleogours) within the same aquifer.
- -
- To use a precipitation–runoff mathematical model to simulate the Fuentetoba spring [17], in order to study the probable past behavior of the karst system in different climatic conditions, as quantified, for example, by the natural recharge variation.
2. Methodology
3. Area Description
3.1. Climate and Vegetation
3.2. External Geomorphological Characteristics
3.3. The Karstic System
4. Results
4.1. Paleohydrogeological Information Provided by the Endokarst: The Majada del Cura Cave and Fuentetoba Spring’s Trop-Plein Syphon
4.1.1. The Paleohydrological Information Provided by the Upper Galleries
4.1.2. The Paleohydrological Information Provided by the Active Lower Gallery
4.1.3. Syngenetic Cave Galleries: Fuentetoba Spring Syphon
4.2. External Morphology with a Paleogeographic Significance: The Fossil Superficial Drainage Network
4.3. The Spring’s Calcareous Tufas
4.3.1. Geological Context
4.3.2. Dating of Tufas and Speleothems (Paleogours)
4.4. Paleohydrogeology and Natural Recharge in Past Climates: Recharge Variation versus Precipitation and Temperature Using Numerical Simulation
4.4.1. Limits in the Use of Mathematical Models for Calculating Past Natural Recharge
4.4.2. Modeling Results
5. Discussion: Paleohydrological Evolution of the Karstic System during the Late Miocene and Quaternary
5.1. The Earliest Stages of Karstification in the Aquifer
5.2. Paleohydrologic Evolution Proposed Since the Late Miocene and during the Quaternary
5.3. What the Tufas Reveal about the Paleoclimatology of the Middle–Upper Pleistocene
5.4. Natural Recharge Variations in Earlier Climatic Stages
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Place | Name | Nominal Date (Years bp) | Method |
---|---|---|---|
The Majada del Cura Cave | N1 Middle Gour | 188,808 + 17,060/−14,853 | Th-230/U-234 |
N2 Bones (c) | ― | ― | |
N7 Clay (c) | ― | ― | |
N8 High Gour | 350 | Th-230/U-234 | |
N 9 Stalagmite | 6978 + 568/−565 | Th-230/U-234 | |
Spring’s tufa | N4 La Monjía | 335,683 + 98,854/−52,534 | Th-230/U-234 |
3-A Mazos River (a) | 38,858 + 1660/−1635 | Th-230/U-234 | |
N 10-A Fuentetoba (b) | 252,304 + 70,511/−42,615 | Th-230/U-234 | |
N 11-B Pachón Cave (c) | ― | ― | |
Añamaza’s tufa | 1 | 225,000 + 25,000/−20,000 | U/Th |
2 | 75,000 + 12,500/−12,500 | U/Th | |
Ágreda’s tufa | Dam | 240,034 + 19,920/−16,963 | U/Th |
Railway station | 180,108 + 9365/−8754 | U/Th | |
Keyles River | 40,350 ± 1950 | C-14 | |
Calcareous tufa terrace | Vozmediano spring | 19,159 + 947/−950 | Th-230/U-234 |
P = 130% | P = 120% | P = 100% | P = 80% | P = 70% | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EVT (%) | R(hm3) | días > 1.000 l/s | EVT (%) | R(hm3) | días > 1.000 l/s | EVT (%) | R(hm3) | días > 1.000 l/s | EVT (%) | R(hm3) | días > 1.000 l/s | EVT (%) | R(hm3) | días > 1.000 l/s | |
∆T = −6° | 34.0% | 14.77 | 35.0 | 35.6% | 13.31 | 32.0 | 39.4% | 10.48 | 24.5 | 44.1% | 7.78 | 17.4 | 46.9% | 6.49 | 13.8 |
∆T = −4° | 38.5% | 13.81 | 32.5 | 40.3% | 12.38 | 29.4 | 44.5% | 9.62 | 22.8 | 49.8% | 7.01 | 14.6 | 53.0% | 5.78 | 10.1 |
∆T = −2° | 42.3% | 13.00 | 31.3 | 44.3% | 11.61 | 28 | 48.8% | 8.93 | 20.6 | 54.3% | 6.42 | 12.4 | 57.6% | 5.25 | 8.5 |
∆T = −1° | 43.9% | 12.65 | 30.1 | 45.9% | 11.28 | 27.5 | 50.6% | 8.64 | 19.3 | 56.2% | 6.18 | 12 | 59.5% | 5.03 | 8 |
∆T = 0° | 45.3% | 12.36 | 29.3 | 47.3% | 11.01 | 26.7 | 52.0% | 8.4 | 18.5 | 57.7% | 5.98 | 11.3 | 61.0% | 4.85 | 7 |
∆T = +1° | 46.5% | 12.10 | 29 | 48.6% | 10.76 | 25.8 | 53.3% | 8.19 | 18.2 | 59.0% | 5.8 | 11 | 62.3% | 4.7 | 7.4 |
∆T = +2° | 47.6% | 11.85 | 29.2 | 49.7% | 10.53 | 25.9 | 54.4% | 7.99 | 17.8 | 60.2% | 5.65 | 10.5 | 63.5% | 4.57 | 6.8 |
∆T = +4° | 49.8% | 11.39 | 28.3 | 51.8% | 10.1 | 25.1 | 56.6% | 7.63 | 17 | 62.2% | 5.37 | 10.1 | 65.5% | 4.33 | 7.9 |
∆T = +6° | 51.9% | 10.92 | 27.2 | 54.0% | 9.66 | 23.5 | 58.7% | 7.28 | 16.2 | 64.3% | 5.09 | 9.6 | 67.4% | 4.1 | 6.0 |
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Sanz Pérez, E.; Fonolla, C.; Menéndez Pidal, I.; Rosas Rodriguez, P. Paleohydrogeology of the Karstic System of Fuentetoba Spring (Soria, Spain): An Interdisciplinary Approach. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137236
Sanz Pérez E, Fonolla C, Menéndez Pidal I, Rosas Rodriguez P. Paleohydrogeology of the Karstic System of Fuentetoba Spring (Soria, Spain): An Interdisciplinary Approach. Sustainability. 2021; 13(13):7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137236
Chicago/Turabian StyleSanz Pérez, Eugenio, Cristina Fonolla, Ignacio Menéndez Pidal, and Pablo Rosas Rodriguez. 2021. "Paleohydrogeology of the Karstic System of Fuentetoba Spring (Soria, Spain): An Interdisciplinary Approach" Sustainability 13, no. 13: 7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137236