Does Green Energy Complement Economic Growth for Achieving Environmental Sustainability? Evidence from Saudi Arabia
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
Model Specifications
3. Data and Descriptive Statistics
4. Results and Discussion
5. Conclusions and Policy Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Description | Source |
---|---|---|
CO2 emissions per capita (Cpc) | CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) | WDI |
CO2 intensity (Cint) | CO2 intensity in kg of oil equivalent energy use | WDI |
CO2 emissions from electricity and heat production (Celhp) | CO2 emissions from electricity and heat production, total (% of total fuel combustion) | WDI |
CO2 emissions from the use of liquid fuel consumption(Clif) | CO2 emissions from liquid fuel consumption (kt) | WDI |
GDP per capita (Y) | GDP per capita (constant 2010 US$) | WDI |
Renewable energy | Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption) | WDI |
Financial Development (FD) | Financial Development Index | IMF |
FDI (F) | Foreign direct investment, net inflows (% of GDP) | WDI |
Trade Openness | Trade is the sum of exports and imports of goods and services measured as a share of gross domestic product. | WDI |
Energy Consumption | Energy use (kg of oil equivalent) per $1000 GDP (constant 2011 PPP) | WDI |
1 | Cpc | Cint | Celhp | Clif | Y | RE | FD | F | T | EC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 15.843 | 3.010 | 48.710 | 233,238.362 | 19,332.68 | 0.012 | 0.377 | 1.785 | 74.001 | 115.441 |
Standard deviation | 2.740 | 0.434 | 1.689 | 91,793.438 | 1207.243 | 0.009 | 0.128 | 2.622 | 11.111 | 16.803 |
Min | 10.497 | 2.259 | 46.981 | 88,466.375 | 16,696.41 | 0.005 | 0.188 | −1.307 | 56.088 | 83.677 |
Max | 20.402 | 3.966 | 50.487 | 413,230.563 | 21,399.10 | 0.037 | 0.559 | 8.496 | 96.102 | 148.902 |
Cpc | 1 | |||||||||
Cint | 0.342 | 1 | ||||||||
Celph | −0.296 | −0.238 | 1 | |||||||
Clif | 0.609 | −0.165 | −0.169 | 1 | ||||||
Y | 0.695 | 0.166 | 0.324 | 0.506 | 1 | |||||
RE | −0.308 | 0.587 | −0.377 | −0.591 | 0.154 | 1 | ||||
FD | 0.684 | −0.308 | −0.033 | 0.724 | 0.519 | 0.694 | 1 | |||
F | 0.279 | −0.227 | 0.301 | 0.438 | 0.159 | 0.319 | 0.541 | 1 | ||
T | 0.560 | 0.010 | 0.397 | 0.694 | 0.397 | 0.270 | 0.630 | 0.703 | 1 | |
EC | 0.658 | 0.477 | 0.072 | 0.778 | 0.398 | 0.445 | 0.490 | 0.501 | 0.531 | 1 |
Variables | ADF | PP | KPSS | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level | 1st Difference | Level | 1st Difference | Level | 1st Difference | |
Cpc | −2.281 | −4.370 *** | −2.417 | −6.001 *** | 0.849 | 0.136 *** |
Cint | −6.772 *** | −4.996 *** | −2.098 | −5.251 *** | 0.662 | 0.098 *** |
Celph | −3.079 ** | −8.195 *** | −3.047 ** | −8.180 *** | 0.172 *** | 0.146 *** |
Clif | −2.485 | −5.709 *** | −2.479 | −5.709 *** | 0.257 | 0.212 *** |
Y | −1.449 | −5.596 *** | −1.449 | −5.593 *** | 0.857 | 0.099 *** |
Y2 | −1.783 | −7.039 *** | −1.783 | −7.035 *** | 0.618 | 0.087 *** |
RE | −5.367 *** | −4.367 *** | −3.894 *** | −5.087 *** | 0.185 *** | 0.196 *** |
FD | −1.020 | −6.636 *** | −1.020 | −6.634 *** | 0.941 *** | 0.113 *** |
F | −2.993 ** | −7.891 *** | −3.029 ** | −8.176 *** | 0.333 | 0.087 *** |
T | −1.182 | −3.362 ** | −1.182 | −3.304 ** | 0.415 *** | 0.104 *** |
EC | −2.287 | −6.284 *** | −2.326 | −6.265 *** | 0.822 *** | 0.080 *** |
Models | Model 1: Cpc | Model 2: Cint | Model 3: Celph | Model 4: Clif | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Cointegrating Equations | Trace Test | Max-Eigen Statistic | Trace Test | Max-Eigen Statistic | Trace Test | Max-Eigen Statistic | Trace Test | Max-Eigen Statistic |
None | 261.904 *** | 90.844 *** | 261.815 *** | 93.497 *** | 252.440 *** | 96.011 *** | 290.746 *** | 103.476 *** |
At most 1 | 171.059 *** | 64.129 *** | 168.317 *** | 63.261 *** | 156.429 *** | 55.471 *** | 187.270 *** | 71.236 *** |
At most 2 | 106.930 *** | 54.863 *** | 104.696 *** | 52.041 *** | 100.957 *** | 44.063 *** | 116.033 *** | 53.694 *** |
At most 3 | 52.066 *** | 23.914 | 52.654 *** | 25.597 *** | 56.893 *** | 30.484 ** | 62.338 ** | 31.336 ** |
At most 4 | 28.152 | 16.478 | 27.057 | 15.873 | 26.408 | 20.492 | 31.001 | 18.093 |
At most 5 | 11.674 | 6.587 | 11.184 | 9.364 | 17.378 | 17.374 | 23.471 | 15.335 |
At most 6 | 5.086 | 4.086 | 8.270 | 7.056 | 9.034 | 8.499 | 12.908 | 9.227 |
At most 7 | 3.382 ** | 3.382 ** | 4.127 ** | 4.127 ** | 0.534 | 0.534 | 3.680 | 3.680 |
Independent Variables | Dependent Variables: CO2 Emissions | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 (Cpc) | Model 2 (Cint) | Model 3 (Celhp) | Model 4 (Clif) | |||||
Coef. | Prob. | Coef. | Prob. | Coef. | Prob. | Coef. | Prob. | |
FMOLS estimates | ||||||||
Y | 0.327 *** | (0.002) | 0.591 *** | (0.000) | 0.244 ** | (0.013) | 0.679 *** | (0.000) |
Y2 | −0.086 | (0.103) | 0.029 | (0.226) | −0.102 | (0.110) | −0.097 ** | (0.019) |
RE | −0.077 ** | (0.036) | −0.086 * | (0.072) | −0.072 *** | (0.003) | 0.041 | (0.123) |
Y*RE | −0.104 | (0.109) | −0.084 | (0.116) | −0.106 | (0.114) | −0.040 | (0.223) |
FD | 0.116 * | (0.060) | 0.104 | (0.123) | 0.194 ** | (0.028) | 0.218 *** | (0.000) |
F | 0.184 ** | (0.021) | 0.236 * | (0.073) | 0.069 | (0.167) | 0.199 ** | (0.012) |
T | 0.267 *** | (0.000) | 0.317 *** | (0.000) | 0.192 ** | (0.026) | 0.329 ** | (0.000) |
EC | 0.493 *** | (0.000) | 0.417 *** | (0.000) | 0.384 *** | (0.000) | 0.586 *** | (0.000) |
Constant | −19.268 *** | (0.000) | 7.279 ** | (0.031) | −1.389 | (0.176) | −11.029 *** | (0.000) |
DOLS estimates | ||||||||
Y | 0.205 ** | (0.044) | 0.361 *** | (0.000) | 0.192 *** | (0.006) | 0.448 *** | (0.000) |
Y2 | −0.046 | (0.134) | 0.070 | (0.115) | −0.092 | (0.100) | −0.102 *** | (0.000) |
RE | −0.055 *** | (0.000) | −0.069 ** | (0.020) | −0.097 *** | (0.000) | 0.073 | (0.116) |
Y*RE | −0.034 | (0.321) | −0.051 | (0.292) | −0.009 | (0.518) | −0.019 | (0.440) |
FD | 0.207 ** | (0.027) | 0.138 * | (0.055) | 0.281 *** | (0.000) | 0.220 *** | (0.000) |
F | 0.193 *** | (0.000) | 0.151 * | (0.077) | 0.090 | (0.107) | 0.179 ** | (0.040) |
T | 0.301 *** | (0.000) | 0.240 *** | (0.000) | 0.202 *** | (0.002) | 0.170 * | (0.052) |
EC | 0.602 *** | (0.000) | 0.324 *** | (0.000) | 0.402 *** | (0.000) | 0.610 *** | (0.000) |
Constant | −24.366 | (0.000) | −9.006 ** | (0.013) | −10.589 *** | (0.000) | 7.829 * | (0.065) |
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Kahia, M.; Omri, A.; Jarraya, B. Does Green Energy Complement Economic Growth for Achieving Environmental Sustainability? Evidence from Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 2021, 13, 180. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010180
Kahia M, Omri A, Jarraya B. Does Green Energy Complement Economic Growth for Achieving Environmental Sustainability? Evidence from Saudi Arabia. Sustainability. 2021; 13(1):180. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010180
Chicago/Turabian StyleKahia, Montassar, Anis Omri, and Bilel Jarraya. 2021. "Does Green Energy Complement Economic Growth for Achieving Environmental Sustainability? Evidence from Saudi Arabia" Sustainability 13, no. 1: 180. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010180
APA StyleKahia, M., Omri, A., & Jarraya, B. (2021). Does Green Energy Complement Economic Growth for Achieving Environmental Sustainability? Evidence from Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 13(1), 180. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010180