Overcoming Barriers to the Community Acceptance of Wind Energy: Lessons Learnt from a Comparative Analysis of Best Practice Cases across Europe
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- RQ1: To what extent can measures for overcoming the obstacles of community acceptance be accurately explained by a typology which characterises such measures according to one key success factor (driver) of community acceptance?
- RQ2: What have been the most common success factors (drivers) for community acceptance across Europe?
- RQ3: What are the lessons learnt for policy makers and developers that can be extracted from the analysis of these cases in order to optimise their efforts and activities to achieve community acceptance?
2. Literature Review and Analytical Framework
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Case Study Selection
- Possess an innovative, testable, and replicable approach;
- Have strong potential to be transferred to other regions and countries;
- Ensure an overall good qualitative balance between the project countries;
- Ensure an overall balance of the types of measures.
3.2. Data Collection
3.3. Synthesis and Comparative Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Brief Overview of the 10 Best Practice Cases
4.2. Assessing the Usefulness of the Typology of Measures
4.3. The Most Common Success Factors (Drivers) for Community Acceptance
4.4. Comparative Analysis of Drivers for Community Acceptance
4.1.1. Financial Participation
4.1.2. Procedural Participation
4.1.3. Impact on the Environment
4.1.4. Governance
4.1.5. Trust
4.1.6. Market
4.1.7. Individual Characteristics
5. Lessons Learnt and Recommendations
5.1. Lessons for Policy
5.1.1. Financial Participation
5.1.2. Procedural Participation
5.1.3. Impact on the Environment
5.1.4. Governance
5.1.5. Trust
5.2. Lessons for Developers
5.2.1. Financial Participation
5.2.2. Procedural Participation
5.2.3. Impact on the Environment
5.2.4. Trust
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Active Participation of Citizens | |
---|---|
Direct | Citizens as owners/stakeholders of the plants (e.g., co-operative, limited liability company, other legal forms etc.) |
Indirect | Citizens as creditors/lenders/financers |
Passive participation of citizens | |
Individual residents | Land lease payments for landowners, bonus payments for local residents, special electricity tariffs for local residents |
Community level | Community foundations/trusts, community associations, compensation payments for the community, in-kind benefits for the community Municipality as owner of the plant Tax revenues from the operation of wind plants |
Formal and Informal Participation in Planning and Permitting Procedures | Active and Passive Financial Participation of Citizens & Communities | Measures Addressing Distributional Justice and Promotion of Regional Co-Benefits | Measures to Reduce the Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy | Communication and Building of Institutional Structures + Voluntary Agreements | Multi Measures Approach | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Germany | Schleswig-Holstein community wind farms | Thuringia service unit | ||||
Italy | Sardinia tax cuts | Abruzzo re-powering | ||||
Latvia | Vidzeme pro-active landscape planning | |||||
Norway | Fosen community dialogue | Birkenes innovation house | ||||
Poland | Kisielice municipality investments | |||||
Spain | Som Energia-Energy Cooperative | Gran Canaria Wind and Water |
Technical Characteristics of Project | Impact on Environment | Financial Impact and Participation | Individual Characteristic | Procedural Participation in Planning and Permitting | Market | Governance | Trust | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Technology Innovation | Impact on Landscape | Impact on Biodiversity/Wildlife | Reduction of GHG Emissions | Positive Effect on Local Economy | Active (Direct/Indirect) Financial Participation of Citizens | Passive Financial Participation/Community Benefits | High Level of Identification with Wind Turbines (“Emotional Ownership”) | Transparent Communication | Effective Formal Procedural Participation of Citizens | Effective Informal Procedural Participation of Citizens | Security of Supply (Energy, Water) | Political Commitment, Leadership | Credibility, Trustworthiness of Key Actors | |
Schleswig-Holstein Community Wind Farms (DE) | X | XX | X | X | XXX | XXX | XX | XXX | XX | X | XX | X | XX | XXX |
Thuringia Service Unit & Label (DE) | XX | X | XXX | XXX | XX | XX | XX | XXX | ||||||
Abruzzo Repowering (IT) | XXX | XXX | XX | XX | XX | XXX | XX | XX | ||||||
Sardinia Tax cut & planning (IT) | XX | XX | XX | XXX | XXX | XX | ||||||||
Vidzeme Proactive Planning (LV) | XX | XXX | XXX | XXX | X | XXX | XX | |||||||
Birkenes Innovation house (NO) | X | XXX | XXX | X | X | |||||||||
Fosen Community Dialogue (NO) | XXX | XXX | XX | XXX | XXX | XX | X | |||||||
Kisielice Energy self-sufficiency (PL) | XX | XX | XXX | XX | XX | X | XXX | XX | ||||||
Gran Canaria Water & Wind (ES) | XXX | X | X | XXX | XXX | XXX | ||||||||
Energy Co-op (ES) | XXX | X | XXX | XXX | XXX |
Name of Measure | Summary of Best Practice Case |
---|---|
Schleswig-Holstein Community Wind Farms (DE) | In the case of three community wind farms in the state of Schleswig-Holstein, which are mainly in the ownership of local farmers, landowners and citizens, land lease pooling models were developed allowing also landowners, whose land was not identified for turbine installations to benefit from land lease payments. In one case, a system was set up to feed 1% of the annual remuneration to a local non-profit organization. In the other cases, a community foundation was developed to support energy-saving measures for the local community and other measures. |
Thuringia Wind Energy Service Centre (DE) | The centre supports landowners and affected municipalities as early as possible in the planning process by providing advisory services free of charge. It de facto facilitates the acceptance of wind energy by ensuring widespread access to information, and by encouraging the development of benefit sharing mechanisms. In Thuringia, approximately 3000 new jobs have been created in the wind sector between 2014 and 2018. While job growth can be more accounted to effective state planning, the Service Unit is considered to have an indirect effect on job creation. |
Abruzzo Repowering (IT) | In the Italian region of Abruzzo, a voluntary code of conduct agreed among developers, sets out key considerations and principles to be respected for the development of local wind projects. This served as a reassurance to the local community that many of their concerns would not be ignored. The repowering process could be carried out smoothly and resulted in the old wind turbines, each between 0.6–0.7 MW, having been replaced with new turbines with a capacity between of 2–4 MW each. |
Sardinia Tax Cuts & Landscape Commitments (IT) | In a highly participatory approach, the developer, local authority and the local community have come together to ensure that 2% of gross annual revenue for every kilowatt hour fed into the network is given to the local municipality. This has enabled more than 20 types of local social interventions. Citizens were able to decide directly on the allocation of funds. |
Vidzeme Proactive Landscape Planning (LV) | In the biosphere reserve of North Vidzeme in Latvia the local communities were able to object to the development of wind energy in specific areas by being included in public consultations and participating in a public survey (among the inhabitants residing in the area) about what should be considered as a characteristic “Latvian” landscape. This has resulted in an effective planning process in which socio-cultural values have been effectively integrated. |
Birkenes Innovation House (NO) | In the Norwegian municipality of Birkenes, a wind developer, as part of a broader voluntary agreement, offered to build a local maintenance and educational house, labelled the ‘innovation house’ in Birkenes. Local workers and materials were used to build the house, which serves as a local educational centre, promoting understanding and social acceptance of wind energy. |
Fosen Community Dialogue (NO) | In the Norwegian town of Fosen, the regulator effectively merged the consultation process for four wind projects and considered their advantages and disadvantages against each other. The concession process has included several opportunities for affected parties to provide feedback through public hearings. In addition, the national permitting authority NVE arranged about 30 public meetings, and approximately 35 meetings were held with local and regional authorities. The purpose of those meetings was to give the public an arena for expressing its views and to address which areas should be investigated to decide whether a project is feasible. |
Kisielice Municipality Investments (PL) | In the Polish town of Kisielice, the mayor had a clear vision for a better future for the local economy and residents. The mayor acted not only as local leader, but also a mediator between developers and residents, becoming instrumental in finding ways to finance, implement and internationally promote the local wind projects. |
Gran Canaria Wind and Water (ES) | In Gran Canaria, where electricity from a wind farm powers a desalination plant, the developers and local authority used existing educational institutions to build understanding and explain the need for the wind farm. Schools were provided with a multitude of materials, such as posters and assignments, in order to allow young children to research and engage further with the wind farms. |
Som Energia Cooperative (ES) | With over 50,000 members, Som Energia is the first and now largest energy cooperative in Spain. It provides a 100% guarantee to its members that the energy which members purchase comes from renewable energy production facilities and provides opportunities for members to collectively invest in wind farms. On top this, it has engaged in various different communication and engagement measures with local groups and civil society organisations. |
Category | Driver | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Technical Characteristics | Technological Innovation | 4 | 2.5% |
Environment | Landscape | 9 | 5.5% |
Environment | Biodiversity | 8 | 5% |
Environment | GHG emissions | 4 | 2.5% |
Financial Participation | Effect on local economy | 18 | 11% |
Financial Participation | Active financial participation | 8 | 5% |
Financial Participation | Passive financial participation | 17 | 10.5% |
Individual characteristics | Identification and ownership | 7 | 5% |
Procedural participation | Transparent communication | 20 | 12.5% |
Procedural participation | Formal procedural participation | 14 | 8.5% |
Procedural participation | Informal procedural participation | 17 | 10.5% |
Market | Security of supply | 7 | 4.5% |
Governance | Political leadership | 14 | 9% |
Trust | Credibility/trust | 13 | 8.5% |
Total: 161 |
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Maleki-Dizaji, P.; del Bufalo, N.; Di Nucci, M.-R.; Krug, M. Overcoming Barriers to the Community Acceptance of Wind Energy: Lessons Learnt from a Comparative Analysis of Best Practice Cases across Europe. Sustainability 2020, 12, 3562. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093562
Maleki-Dizaji P, del Bufalo N, Di Nucci M-R, Krug M. Overcoming Barriers to the Community Acceptance of Wind Energy: Lessons Learnt from a Comparative Analysis of Best Practice Cases across Europe. Sustainability. 2020; 12(9):3562. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093562
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaleki-Dizaji, Pouyan, Nicoletta del Bufalo, Maria-Rosaria Di Nucci, and Michael Krug. 2020. "Overcoming Barriers to the Community Acceptance of Wind Energy: Lessons Learnt from a Comparative Analysis of Best Practice Cases across Europe" Sustainability 12, no. 9: 3562. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093562