Analysis of Window-Opening Patterns and Air Conditioning Usage of Urban Residences in Tropical Southeast Asia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Survey Cities
2.2. Surveyed Houses
2.3. Survey Methods
2.4. Sample Profiles
2.5. Analysis Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Daily Patterns of Window-Opening
3.2. Daily Patterns of AC Usage
3.3. Daily Patterns of Fan Usage
3.4. Associations Among Daily Patterns of Window-Opening, AC Usage and Fan Usage
3.5. Reasons for Not Opening Windows
3.6. Duration and Location of AC Usage
4. Conclusions
- (1)
- Several typical daily patterns of window-opening, AC usage and fan usage were extracted, respectively. Occupants’ window-opening behaviour was influenced by its climatic conditions such as hot and humid and relatively cool climates. Nevertheless, there were various behavioural patterns even in the same hot and humid climate. This indicates that there are factors affecting the window-opening behaviour other than temperature changes. There was no significant association between thermal sensations and the window-opening behaviour in this survey.
- (2)
- It was found that household size, age of respondent, household income and concerns about insects were the most influential factors for daily window-opening patterns. In addition, housing type, floor level and AC ownership, respectively, affected window-opening behaviour in the evening and night. Concerns about insects, security and rain were associated as obstacles for window-opening behaviour at night.
- (3)
- Daily patterns of AC use and fan use were different between the hot and humid cities and the relatively cool city. In the former cities, most households used ACs during night-time, whereas AC non-owners used fans instead. In the latter city, AC(s) were mostly used only in the evening without using fan(s).
- (4)
- Most households without owning AC in the hot and humid cities mainly opened their windows only during daytime. The reasons for closing windows in the evening and night-time included “insects” for both living room and bedrooms. “Theft” and “someone’s eyes” were also chosen as the reasons for living room at night. This result suggested that it is necessary to eliminate these obstacles to promote structural cooling with night ventilation.
- (5)
- In the hot and humid cities, the households tended to install their AC in their bedrooms first, and then install an additional unit in their living rooms. It was suggested that energy consumption would increase further if AC ownership is increased and used not only in their bedrooms at night but also in the living rooms during daytime in the future.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total | Survey 1 | Survey 2 | Survey 3 | Survey 4 | Survey 5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample size | 1570 | 356 | 303 | 347 | 265 | 299 |
Survey city | - | Johor Bahru | Johor Bahru | Surabaya | Surabaya | Bandung |
Mean daily air temp. (°C) | - | 27.9 | 27.9 | 27.7 | 27.7 | 23.7 |
Mean daily relative humidity (%) | - | 82.2 | 82.2 | 76.5 | 76.5 | 75.2 |
Survey period | - | Sep.–Oct. 2004 | Apr.–Jun. 2006 | Sep.–Oct. 2013 | Sep.–Oct. 2016 | Sep. 2014 |
Household attributes | ||||||
Average household size | 3.8 | 5.4 | 4.6 | 3.4 | 3.6 | 1.9 |
Average age of respondent | 41.8 | 45.0 | 40.7 | 39.7 | 41.6 | N/A |
Age of respondent (%) | ||||||
≤30 | 22.6 | 8.3 | 13.8 | 22.0 | 18.3 | 51.2 |
31–40 | 31.4 | 24.2 | 37.7 | 34.6 | 28.8 | 32.4 |
41–50 | 29.7 | 41.6 | 37.7 | 25.2 | 31.3 | 12.0 |
51–60 | 11.6 | 19.8 | 9.3 | 11.3 | 14.2 | 2.7 |
≥60 | 4.7 | 6.2 | 1.4 | 6.9 | 7.5 | 1.7 |
Median household income ratio 1 | 8.5 | 9.4 | 8.8 | 7.6 | 7.9 | 8.3–9.0 |
Building attributes | ||||||
Housing type; (a) apartment | 842 | 0 | 238 | 309 | 265 | 30 |
Housing type; (b) apartment | 372 | 0 | 65 | 38 | 0 | 269 |
Housing type; (c) terraced house | 356 | 356 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Floor number | - | N/A | 4.6 | 3.5 | 3.3 | N/A |
Unit floor size (m2) | - | N/A | N/A | 19.5 | 25.5 | 31.8 |
Ownership | ||||||
AC ownership (%) | 29.6 | 61.0 | 35.3 | 10.7 | 0.0 2 | 34.8 |
AC in bedroom (%) | 24.3 | 58.4 | 32.0 | 3.4 | 0.0 2 | 19.7 |
AC in living room (%) | 12.6 | 16.6 | 11.2 | 0.6 | 0.0 2 | 33.4 |
AC quantity (unit) | 0.6 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.0 2 | 0.5 |
Fan ownership (%) | 91.5 | 97.7 | 92.4 | 85.6 | 89.8 | N/A |
Duration | ||||||
Window-opening (h) | 12.3 | 11.7 | 13.7 | 14.2 | 18.9 | 3.8 |
AC usage (h) | 2.2 | 4.6 | 2.6 | 1.2 | 0.0 2 | 1.9 |
Climate | Group | n | Share (%) | Window-Opening (h) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hot-humid | All-day | 299 | 23.5 | 23.2 |
Daytime and evening | 433 | 34.1 | 14.5 | |
Daytime | 321 | 25.3 | 11.5 | |
Never | 218 | 17.2 | 6.1 | |
Total | 1271 | 100.0 | 15.4 | |
Relatively cool | Sunrise and sunset | 119 | 41.6 | 4.8 |
Sunrise 1 | 91 | 31.8 | 2.9 | |
Sunrise 2 | 76 | 26.6 | 1.9 | |
Total | 286 | 100.0 | 3.4 |
Surveyed Variables | Classified Window-Opening Patterns | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Never | Daytime | Daytime and Evening | All-Day | |
Household attributes | ||||
Household size | 0.75 (0.67–0.84) *** | 1.13 (1.04–1.22) ** | 1.12 (1.04–1.21) ** | 0.89 (0.81–0.98) * |
Age of respondent | 0.98 (0.96–1.00) ** | 1.03 (1.01–1.04) *** | 0.99 (0.98–1.00) * | 1.01 (0.99–1.02) |
Household income ratio | 1.70 (1.41–2.05) *** | 1.21 (1.05–1.41) * | 0.94 (0.83–1.08) | 0.61 (0.52–0.71) *** |
Electricity bills ratio | 1.00 (0.74–1.34) | 1.23 (0.95–1.59) | 1.09 (0.86–1.37) | 0.69 (0.52–0.92) * |
Household income divided by electricity bills | 1.17 (0.08–16.24) | 6.34 (0.67–59.73) | 1.94 (0.27–14.14) | 0.05 (0.00–0.47) ** |
Building attributes | ||||
Housing type | 1.07 (0.85–1.34) | 1.63 (1.35–1.97) *** | 0.96 (0.81–1.15) | 0.47 (0.36–0.60) *** |
Age of building | 0.91 (0.63–1.33) | 0.76 (0.55–1.06) | 1.09 (0.83–1.42) | 1.13 (0.85–1.50) |
Floor level | 0.94 (0.83–1.08) | 0.86 (0.76–0.98) * | 1.03 (0.93–1.14) | 1.12 (1.00–1.24) * |
Unit size | 0.97 (0.92–1.02) | 0.96 (0.92–1.00) | 0.98 (0.95–1.02) | 1.05 (1.01–1.08) ** |
Ownership | ||||
AC ownership | 1.45 (0.96–2.18) | 1.45 (1.03–2.04) * | 0.99 (0.72–1.37) | 0.40 (0.26–0.63) *** |
AC in bedroom | 1.41 (0.92–2.17) | 1.43 (1.01–2.03) * | 0.93 (0.66–1.30) | 0.45 (0.29–0.72) ** |
AC in living room | 1.15 (0.63–2.08) | 1.23 (0.75–2.02) | 1.03 (0.63–1.68) | 0.45 (0.50–1.01) |
AC quantity | 1.13 (0.97–1.32) | 1.09 (0.96–1.24) | 0.96 (0.84–1.09) | 0.74 (0.60–0.91) ** |
Fan ownership | 0.67 (0.37–1.20) | 2.11 (1.03–4.34) * | 1.16 (0.69–1.93) | 0.76 (0.45–1.28) |
Duration | ||||
AC usage | 1.07 (1.03–1.12) ** | 1.03 (1.00–1.07) | 0.98 (0.94–1.01) | 0.89 (0.84–0.94) *** |
Fan usage | 0.98 (0.96–1.01) | 1.02 (0.99–1.04) | 0.99 (0.98–1.01) | 1.00 (0.98–1.02) |
Stay in house | 0.91 (0.88–0.94) *** | 1.02 (0.99–1.04) | 1.02 (0.99–1.05) | 1.03 (1.00–1.07) * |
Sensations 3 | ||||
Thermal (daytime) | 1.01 (0.86–1.18) | 0.94 (0.82–1.08) | 1.03 (0.92–1.15) | 1.01 (0.91–1.12) |
Thermal (night-time) | 1.00 (0.85–1.16) | 0.98 (0.85–1.13) | 1.08 (0.96–1.21) | 0.95 (0.85–1.06) |
Wind flow (daytime) | 0.87 (0.74–1.03) | 0.99 (0.86–1.14) | 0.94 (0.83–1.07) | 1.30 (1.09–1.54) * |
General comfort (daytime) | 1.05 (0.87–1.27) | 0.82 (0.70–0.95) * | 1.08 (0.93–1.25) | 1.13 (0.94–1.37) |
Reasons for not opening windows | ||||
Insects | 0.61 (0.4–0.88) ** | 2.09 (1.57–2.77) *** | 0.91 (0.71–1.18) | 0.72 (0.54–0.97) * |
Security | 0.92 (0.63–1.33) | 0.93 (0.68–1.27) | 0.78 (0.59–1.03) | 1.53 (1.13–2.06) ** |
Rain | 0.64 (0.41–0.97) * | 0.96 (0.68–1.34) | 1.72 (1.27–2.61) *** | 0.69 (0.47–1.01) |
Privacy | 0.82 (0.54–1.26) | 0.56 (0.39–0.83) ** | 1.26 (0.93–1.70) | 1.32 (0.96–1.81) |
Dust | 1.33 (0.89–2.01) | 0.93 (0.63–1.35) | 0.91 (0.65–1.27) | 0.99 (0.67–1.45) |
AC | 2.21 (1.23–3.99) ** | 0.69 (0.37–1.30) | 0.84 (0.47–1.48) | 0.62 (0.27–1.41) |
Noise | 0.91 (0.42–1.96) | 0.85 (0.42–1.73) | 1.03 (0.59–1.80) | 1.11 (0.63–1.96) |
Climate | Group | n | Share (%) | AC Usage (h) | AC Ownership (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hot-humid | Night-time | 137 | 11.5 | 7.5 | 100.0 |
Evening and night-time | 81 | 6.8 | 7.5 | 100.0 | |
Never | 966 | 81.6 | 0.2 | 5.8 | |
Total | 1184 | 100.0 | 1.5 | 23.1 | |
Relatively cool | Afternoon | 16 | 5.4 | 6.3 | 100.0 |
Evening | 37 | 12.5 | 5.9 | 100.0 | |
Early evening | 47 | 15.9 | 4.7 | 100.0 | |
Never | 195 | 66.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | |
Total | 295 | 100.0 | 1.8 | 33.9 |
Climate | Group | n | Share (%) | Fan Usage (h) | Fan Ownership (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hot-humid | All-day | 293 | 23.1 | 23.2 | 98.0 |
Afternoon and night-time | 300 | 23.6 | 14.2 | 96.3 | |
Evening and night-time | 283 | 22.3 | 11.7 | 96.8 | |
Daytime and evening | 206 | 16.2 | 13.8 | 99.5 | |
Never | 189 | 14.9 | 2.9 | 56.1 | |
Total | 1271 | 100.0 | 14.0 | 91.3 | |
Relatively cool | Never | 272 | 100.0 | 0.1 | 5.9 |
Total | 272 | 100.0 | 0.1 | 5.9 |
Climate | Group | n | Share (%) | AC Usage (h) | AC Ownership (%) | Window-Opening (h) | Fan Usage (h) | Fan Ownership (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hot-humid | A1 | 149 | 12.2 | 8.3 | 100.0 | 11.7 | 11.8 | 84.6 |
A2 | 76 | 6.2 | 8.2 | 100.0 | 10.7 | 11.7 | 89.5 | |
A3 | 229 | 18.7 | 0.1 | 1.7 | 22.7 | 12.7 | 94.3 | |
A4 | 604 | 49.3 | 0.3 | 8.8 | 14.2 | 14.3 | 93.4 | |
A5 | 168 | 13.8 | 1.2 | 20.2 | 6.8 | 11.9 | 87.5 | |
Total | 1226 | 100.0 | 1.8 | 25.8 | 14.2 | 13.2 | 91.4 | |
Relatively cool | 297 | 100.0 | 1.9 | 35.0 | 3.7 | 0.4 | 13.8 |
Attributes | Daytime | Night-Time | |
---|---|---|---|
Hot-humid city | With ACs | Daytime ventilation | AC use |
Without ACs | Daytime ventilation | Fan use | |
Relatively cool city | With ACs | Window-opening in morning and evening AC use in the evening | - |
Without ACs | Window-opening in morning and evening | - |
Climate. | Group | n | Share (%) | AC Usage (h) | AC Ownership (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hot-humid | Night-time 1 | 272 | 75.3 | 6.5 | 100.0 |
Night-time 2 | 43 | 11.9 | 10.9 | 100.0 | |
Afternoon and evening | 46 | 12.7 | 12.5 | 100.0 | |
Total | 361 | 100.0 | 7.8 | 100.0 |
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Mori, H.; Kubota, T.; Antaryama, I.G.N.; Ekasiwi, S.N.N. Analysis of Window-Opening Patterns and Air Conditioning Usage of Urban Residences in Tropical Southeast Asia. Sustainability 2020, 12, 10650. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410650
Mori H, Kubota T, Antaryama IGN, Ekasiwi SNN. Analysis of Window-Opening Patterns and Air Conditioning Usage of Urban Residences in Tropical Southeast Asia. Sustainability. 2020; 12(24):10650. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410650
Chicago/Turabian StyleMori, Hiroshi, Tetsu Kubota, I Gusti Ngurah Antaryama, and Sri Nastiti N. Ekasiwi. 2020. "Analysis of Window-Opening Patterns and Air Conditioning Usage of Urban Residences in Tropical Southeast Asia" Sustainability 12, no. 24: 10650. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410650
APA StyleMori, H., Kubota, T., Antaryama, I. G. N., & Ekasiwi, S. N. N. (2020). Analysis of Window-Opening Patterns and Air Conditioning Usage of Urban Residences in Tropical Southeast Asia. Sustainability, 12(24), 10650. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410650