Development of a Soil Quality Index for Soils under Different Agricultural Management Conditions in the Central Lowlands of Mexico: Physicochemical, Biological and Ecophysiological Indicators
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Survey and Sampling Soils
2.2. Preparation and Maintenance of Soil Samples
2.3. Sample Preparation for the Establishment of Physicochemical Indicators
2.4. Biological Characterization
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Development of the SQI
3. Results
3.1. Physicochemical Indicators
3.2. Ecophysiological Indicators
3.3. Enzyme Profile
3.4. Analysis of Variance
3.5. Principal Component Analysis
3.6. Procurement of the SQI
4. Discussion
4.1. Physicochemical Indicators
4.2. Ecophysiological Indicators
4.3. Enzymatic Indicators
4.4. SQI and Key Indicators
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Agricultural Management | Soils | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | |
Crop | Fodder corn/triticale forage | Alfalfa | Sorghum/barley | No cultivation, only natural grass | Corn/barley | Bean |
Soil management | gypsum/compost (cow dung) | - | - | - | - | - |
Type of irrigation | Surface with well water | Surface with well water | Surface with well water | Seasonal | Surface with well water/thermal water | Surface with well water |
Fertilization practices | Treatment 240–60–0 kg/ha for corn | 100 kg of sulphates/ha | Treatment 300–60–0 kg/ha for sorghum/200–60–0 kg/ha for barley | None | Treatment 200–60–0 kg/ha for barley/240–60–0 kg/ha for corn | Treatment 80–40–0 kg/ha for beans |
Tillage | Conventional (1 fallow, 4 harrows, 1 crop) | Only soil preparation when the crop was established, then zero tillage. | Conventional (1 fallow, 4 harrows, 1 crop) | Zero tillage because it is not sowed or cultivated, only the grass is used in temporary conditions | Conventional (1 fallow, 4 harrows, 1 crop) | Conventional with only one cycle per year (1 fallow, 2 harrows, 1 crop) |
Yield | 80 t of silo/ha | 350 bales/ha | 8 t sorghum/ha 4.5 t barley/ha | Not estimated | 10 t maize/ha 6 t barley/ha | 2 t beans/ha |
Location | 20°33′4.72″ N, 100°41′40.11″ W | 20°24′50.22″ N, 100°57′50.84″ W | 20°26′28.32″ N, 100°58′57. 50″ W | 20°34′50.44″ N, 100°51′59.78″ W | 20°37′82″ N, 101°39′35.86″ W | 20°34′52.77″ N, 100°49′16.41″ W |
Soil Quality | Very High | High | Moderate | Low | Very Low |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scale | 0.80–1.00 | 0.60–0.79 | 0.40–0.59 | 0.20–0.39 | 0.00–0.19 |
Class | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
DV | Soils | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | |
pH | 8.40 ± 0.15 | 8.07 ± 0.14 | 7.82 ± 0.11 | 8.85 ± 0.22 | 7.80 ± 0.18 | 8.57 ± 0.10 |
EC | 0.87 ± 0.11 | 0.81 ± 0.04 | 0.71 ± 0.05 | 1.22 ± 0.12 | 1.78 ± 0.27 | 0.61 ± 0.12 |
WHC | 94.83 ± 4.61 | 180.55 ± 16.98 | 167.45 ± 6.33 | 116.37 ± 5.45 | 101.79 ± 8.08 | 91.93 ± 5.67 |
SND | 34.63 ± 4.62 | 14.75 ± 4.07 | 9.10 ± 3.59 | 17.19 ± 2.25 | 18.03 ± 3.18 | 34.82 ± 4.89 |
CLY | 40.24 ± 3.81 | 62.93 ± 3.99 | 69.18 ± 7.29 | 52.27 ± 6.24 | 48.94 ± 3.19 | 26.18 ± 3.68 |
SLT | 25.13 ± 4.28 | 22.32 ± 4.76 | 21.72 ± 5.59 | 30.55 ± 7.75 | 33.03 ± 2.81 | 39.00 ± 4.95 |
BD | 0.94 ± 0.03 | 1.13 ± 0.01 | 1.10 ± 0.002 | 0.94 ± 0.03 | 1.06 ± 0.02 | 0.94 ± 0.01 |
TOC | 10.97 ± 2.27 | 13.12 ± 1.17 | 11.02 ± 0.46 | 13.53 ± 0.82 | 14.06 ± 0.95 | 10.30 ±1.98 |
TN | 468.71 ± 56.34 | 391.22 ± 26.41 | 336.77 ± 28.49 | 351.28 ± 38.58 | 552.50 ± 36.11 | 252.00 ± 29.99 |
C/N | 23.28 ± 2.72 | 33.63 ± 3.23 | 32.84 ± 1.70 | 38.88 ± 4.10 | 25.59 ± 2.81 | 40.79 ± 4.91 |
N-NH4+ | 24.70 ± 4.21 | 23.23 ± 3.62 | 25.91 ± 7.57 | 29.89 ± 6.05 | 63.63 ± 14.51 | 56.23 ± 10.87 |
N-NO2− | 0.62 ± 0.19 | 1.13 ± 0.30 | 0.88 ± 0.16 | 0.59 ± 0.12 | 0.73 ± 0.05 | 0.63 ± 0.12 |
N-NO3− | 23.78 ± 7.50 | 18.46 ± 3.01 | 15.56 ± 3.39 | 25.52 ± 1.51 | 55.32 ± 7.25 | 21.27 ± 3.30 |
K+ | 1.85 ± 0.15 | 0.87 ± 0.10 | 1.79 ± 0.15 | 4.57 ± 0.54 | 1.66 ± 0.27 | 2.42 ± 0.20 |
Ca+2 | 24.95 ± 1.94 | 48.87 ± 1.80 | 34.94 ± 1.58 | 20.59 ± 1.36 | 17.62 ± 1.67 | 15.27 ± 0.59 |
Mg+2 | 8.20 ± 0.60 | 10.05 ± 1.92 | 10.79 ± 1.33 | 3.31 ± 0.13 | 8.47 ± 0.63 | 4.43 ± 0.43 |
Na+ | 2.79 ± 0.15 | 4.00 ± 0.18 | 4.30 ± 0.43 | 6.07 ± 0.74 | 5.56 ± 1.03 | 1.09 ± 0.27 |
CEC | 37.70 ± 4.50 | 63.55 ± 5.00 | 52.80 ± 10.63 | 34.50 ± 3.63 | 33.33 ± 2.64 | 23.20 ± 2.88 |
ESP | 7.44 ± 0.57 | 6.31 ± 0.38 | 8.42 ± 1.90 | 17.78 ± 3.17 | 16.81 ± 3.44 | 4.76 ± 1.34 |
SAR | 2.16 ± 0.04 | 2.33 ± 0.11 | 2.81 ± 0.26 | 5.54 ± 0.52 | 4.88 ± 0.94 | 1.09 ± 0.24 |
DV | Soils | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | |
MBC | 536.57 ± 100.58 | 1014.95 ± 109.00 | 460.74 ± 60.39 | 166.59 ± 26.37 | 1222.84 ± 36.91 | 171.65 ± 32.32 |
qCO2 | 3.25 ± 1.04 | 2.54 ± 0.41 | 8.02 ± 1.37 | 33.07 ± 5.27 | 5.18 ± 0.12 | 4.31 ± 1.01 |
qMic | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.02 ± 0.01 |
Enzyme (µmol of Substrate kg of Soil−1) | Soils | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | |
UA | 41,813.39 | 2429.36 | 766.71 | 7135.49 | 32,733.67 | 680.78 |
DHA | 1.72 | 2.87 | 11.83 | 6.94 | 21.40 | 7.51 |
FDA | 168.19 | 3054.26 | 131.72 | 136.65 | 58.74 | 59.16 |
AP | 0.010 | 0.040 | 0.040 | 0.020 | 0.040 | 0.005 |
APE | 0.010 | 0.010 | 0.030 | 0.005 | 0.030 | 0.005 |
PH | 0.020 | 0.030 | 0.020 | 0.020 | 0.020 | 0.020 |
ES | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
EL | 0.010 | 0.030 | 0.020 | 0.020 | 0.030 | 0.010 |
LIP | 0.020 | 0.020 | 0.010 | 0.010 | 0.020 | 0.010 |
LAA | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | --- | 0.005 |
VAA | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
CAR | 0.020 | 0.020 | 0.030 | 0.020 | 0.010 | 0.010 |
TRI | 0.020 | 0.010 | 0.020 | 0.020 | 0.010 | 0.010 |
AC | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.010 | 0.010 | 0.020 | 0.005 |
AGAL | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
BGAL | 0.005 | --- | 0.010 | 0.005 | 0.005 | --- |
BGLU | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
AGLU | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | --- |
BGLUC | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
NABG | 0.005 | 0.005 | --- | --- | --- | --- |
AMAN | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | --- | --- | --- |
AFUC | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Families | Enzymes | Soils | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | ||
Phosphatases | AP | ||||||
APE | |||||||
PH | |||||||
Esterases-lipases | ES | ||||||
EL | |||||||
LIP | |||||||
Aminopeptidases | LAA | ||||||
VAA | |||||||
CAR | |||||||
Peptidases | TRI | ||||||
AC | |||||||
Glycosyl hydrolases | AGAL | ||||||
BGAL | |||||||
BGLU | |||||||
AGLU | |||||||
BGLUC | |||||||
NABG | |||||||
AMAN | |||||||
AFUC | |||||||
Activity 1 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 9 | |
Activity 2 | 7 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 5 | 5 | |
Activity 4 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 3 | 0 | |
Not detected | 6 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
DV | Soils | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | |
SEI | 41,983.45 ± 4848.38 | 24,290.04 ± 1433.42 | 910.53 ± 175.61 | 7279.12 ± 2501.91 | 32,814.06 ± 3287.31 | 747.79 ± 66.82 |
H’ | 2.65 ± 0.04 | 2.35 ± 0.02 | 3.08 ± 0.08 | 2.91 ± 0.10 | 2.35 ± 0.03 | 2.97 ± 0.03 |
DV | Soils | F | p | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | |||
pH ** | 8.40b | 8.07c | 7.82d | 8.85a | 7.80d | 8.57b | 90.39 | 0.000 |
EC ** | 0.87c | 0.81c | 0.71cd | 1.22b | 1.78a | 0.61d | 117.24 | 0.000 |
WHC ** | 94.83d | 180.55a | 167.45b | 116.37c | 101.79d | 91.93d | 226.54 | 0.000 |
SND ** | 34.63a | 14.75b | 9.10c | 17.19b | 18.04b | 34.82a | 92.86 | 0.000 |
CLY ** | 40.24d | 62.93b | 69.18a | 52.27c | 48.94c | 26.18e | 118.58 | 0.000 |
SLT ** | 25.13cd | 22.32d | 21.72d | 30.55bc | 33.03ab | 39.00a | 20.15 | 0.000 |
BD ** | 0.94d | 1.12a | 1.10b | 0.94d | 1.06c | 0.94d | 199.57 | 0.000 |
TOC ** | 10.97b | 13.13a | 11.02b | 13.53a | 14.06a | 10.31b | 14.78 | 0.000 |
TN ** | 468.70b | 391.22c | 336.77d | 351.30cd | 552.50a | 252.00e | 96.20 | 0.000 |
C/N ** | 23.28c | 33.63b | 32.85b | 38.88a | 25.59c | 40.79a | 50.44 | 0.000 |
N-NH4+ ** | 24.70b | 23.23b | 25.91b | 29.89b | 63.63a | 56.23a | 50.57 | 0.000 |
N-NO2− ** | 0.62c | 1.13a | 0.89b | 0.59c | 0.73bc | 0.63c | 17.31 | 0.000 |
N-NO3− ** | 23.78bc | 18.46cd | 15.56d | 25.53b | 55.32a | 21.27bcd | 106.14 | 0.000 |
K+ ** | 1.85c | 0.87d | 1.79c | 4.57a | 1.66c | 2.42b | 250.08 | 0.000 |
Ca+2 ** | 24.95c | 48.87a | 35.94b | 20.59d | 17.62e | 15.27f | 823.55 | 0.000 |
Mg+2 ** | 8.20b | 10.05a | 10.79a | 3.31c | 8.47b | 4.43c | 102.75 | 0.000 |
Na+ ** | 2.79c | 4.00b | 4.30b | 6.07a | 5.56a | 1.09d | 125.91 | 0.000 |
CEC ** | 37.78c | 63.70a | 52.82b | 34.54c | 33.32c | 23.20d | 508.85 | 0.000 |
ESP ** | 7.39bc | 6.27c | 8.14b | 17.52a | 16.67a | 4.64d | 211.09 | 0.000 |
SAR ** | 1.30c | 1.38bc | 1.69b | 3.27a | 3.00a | 0.66d | 151.71 | 0.000 |
MBC ** | 536.60c | 1014.90b | 460.70c | 166.59d | 1222.80a | 171.65d | 478.24 | 0.000 |
qCO2 ** | 3.25c | 2.54c | 8.02b | 33.07a | 5.18c | 4.31c | 311.28 | 0.000 |
qMic ** | 0.05c | 0.08b | 0.04d | 0.01e | 0.09a | 0.01e | 293.73 | 0.000 |
SEI ** | 41,983.0a | 24,290.0c | 910.5e | 7279.0d | 32,814.0b | 747.8e | 519.41 | 0.000 |
H’ ** | 2.65c | 3.08a | 2.35d | 2.91b | 2.35d | 2.97b | 367.72 | 0.000 |
Indicator | Significant Positive Correlation with Other Indicators | Significant Negative Correlation with Other Indicators |
---|---|---|
pH | K+ | BD, Mg+2, MBC, and qMic |
EC | TN, N-NO3−, Na+, ESP, and SAR | --- |
WHC | CLY, BD, N-NO2−, Ca+2, and CEC | SND |
SND | --- | WHC, CLY, BD, and CEC |
CLY | WHC, BD, Ca+2, Na+, and CEC | SND and SLT |
SLT | --- | SND, Ca+2, and CEC |
BD | WHC, CLY, N-NO2−, Ca+2, Mg+2, CEC, MBC, and qMic | pH, SND, and K+ |
TOC | --- | --- |
TN | EC, MBC, qMic, and SEI | C/N and H’ |
N-NH4+ | --- | Ca+2 and CEC |
N-NO3− | EC | --- |
N-NO2− | WHC, BD, Ca+2, and CEC | --- |
K+ | pH, qCO2, and H’ | BD, Ca+2, Mg+2, MBC, and qMic |
Ca+2 | WHC, CLY, BD, N-NO2−, Mg+2, and CEC | SLT, N-NH4+, and K+ |
Mg+2 | BD, Ca+2, CEC, MBC, and qMic | pH, K+, and qCO2 |
Na+ | EC, CLY, ESP, and SAR | --- |
CEC | WHC, CLY, BD, N-NO2−, Ca+2, and Mg+2 | SND, SLT, and N-NH4+ |
ESP | EC, Na+, SAR, and qCO2 | --- |
SAR | EC, Na+, ESP, and qCO2 | --- |
MBC | BD, TN, Mg+2, qMic, and SEI | pH, C/N, K+, and H’ |
qCO2 | K+, ESP, and SAR | Mg+2 and qMic |
qMic | BD, TN, Mg+2, MBC, and SEI | pH, C/N, K+, qCO2, and H’ |
SEI | TN, MBC, and qMic | C/N and H’ |
H’ | K+ | TN, MBC, qMic, and SEI |
Components | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 |
---|---|---|---|
Eigenvalue | 9.227 | 4.535 | 3.088 |
Variation ratio | 0.441 | 0.216 | 0.147 |
Cumulative variation | 0.441 | 0.657 | 0.804 |
Indicators | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | Communality |
pH | −0.729 | −0.165 | 0.139 | 0.845 |
EC | 0.135 | 0.700 | 0.647 | 0.929 |
WHC | 0.722 | −0.586 | 0.150 | 0.925 |
SND | −0.584 | 0.369 | −0.495 | 0.905 |
CLY | 0.774 | −0.275 | 0.528 | 0.956 |
SLT | −0.632 | 0.358 | --- | 0.658 |
BD | 0.860 | −0.151 | --- | 0.919 |
TN | 0.517 | 0.699 | 0.237 | 0.879 |
N-NH4+ | −0.439 | 0.464 | −0.253 | 0.846 |
N-NO3− | --- | 0.836 | 0.302 | 0.831 |
N-NO2− | 0.700 | −0.206 | −0.154 | 0.573 |
K+ | −0.788 | --- | 0.538 | 0.913 |
Ca+2 | 0.802 | −0.492 | --- | 0.943 |
Mg+2 | 0.855 | --- | −0.286 | 0.841 |
Na+ | 0.511 | 0.145 | 0.820 | 0.958 |
CEC | 0.854 | −0.341 | 0.137 | 0.938 |
MBC | 0.861 | 0.469 | −0.146 | 0.985 |
qCO2 | −0.426 | −0.225 | 0.859 | 0.981 |
qMic | 0.837 | 0.427 | −0.263 | 0.965 |
SEI | 0.497 | 0.651 | 0.146 | 0.968 |
H’ | 0.580 | −0.675 | 0.100 | 0.937 |
Indicators | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 |
---|---|---|---|
WHC | 1.000 | --- | --- |
SLT | 0.067 | --- | --- |
N-NO3− | --- | 1.000 | --- |
qCO2 | --- | --- | 1.000 |
DV | Soils | F | p | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGQ | CTH | CTJ | JRM | CRC | CYI | |||
SQI ** | 0.379d | 0.519a | 0.434c | 0.316e | 0.480b | 0.352d | 83.2 | 0.000 |
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Bedolla-Rivera, H.I.; Xochilt Negrete-Rodríguez, M.d.l.L.; Medina-Herrera, M.d.R.; Gámez-Vázquez, F.P.; Álvarez-Bernal, D.; Samaniego-Hernández, M.; Gámez-Vázquez, A.J.; Conde-Barajas, E. Development of a Soil Quality Index for Soils under Different Agricultural Management Conditions in the Central Lowlands of Mexico: Physicochemical, Biological and Ecophysiological Indicators. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9754. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229754
Bedolla-Rivera HI, Xochilt Negrete-Rodríguez MdlL, Medina-Herrera MdR, Gámez-Vázquez FP, Álvarez-Bernal D, Samaniego-Hernández M, Gámez-Vázquez AJ, Conde-Barajas E. Development of a Soil Quality Index for Soils under Different Agricultural Management Conditions in the Central Lowlands of Mexico: Physicochemical, Biological and Ecophysiological Indicators. Sustainability. 2020; 12(22):9754. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229754
Chicago/Turabian StyleBedolla-Rivera, Héctor Iván, María de la Luz Xochilt Negrete-Rodríguez, Miriam del Rocío Medina-Herrera, Francisco Paúl Gámez-Vázquez, Dioselina Álvarez-Bernal, Midory Samaniego-Hernández, Alfredo Josué Gámez-Vázquez, and Eloy Conde-Barajas. 2020. "Development of a Soil Quality Index for Soils under Different Agricultural Management Conditions in the Central Lowlands of Mexico: Physicochemical, Biological and Ecophysiological Indicators" Sustainability 12, no. 22: 9754. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229754