Modelling, Measuring, and Visualising Community Resilience: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Methodological Approach
3.1. Research Question
- 1.
- What resilience studies, projects, and tools at community-based levels already exist?
- 2.
- What types of threats, hazards, shocks, disasters, etc. do they face?
- 3.
- What and how many resilience components and properties do they define?
- 4.
- How do they measure community resilience—i.e., using more qualitative evidence, quantitative indicators, or a combination of the two?
- 5.
- What are the appropriate visualisation techniques to express community resilience information?
3.2. Search Strategy
3.3. Eligibility Criteria and Selection Process
- Focusing on modelling, measuring, or visualising community, urban, or rural resilience.
- Having full-text publications or descriptions.
- Publishing in the English language.
- The literature is a letter, thesis, dissertation, or conference abstract.
- The literature is not related to defined research questions.
4. Modelling Community Resilience
4.1. Defining Key Components
4.1.1. Less than Five Components
4.1.2. From Five to Seven Components
4.1.3. More than Seven Components
4.2. Determining Community Resilience Properties
5. Measuring Community Resilience
5.1. Qualitative Approaches
5.1.1. Framework Level
5.1.2. Component Level
5.2. Quantitative Approaches
5.3. Hybrid Approaches
6. Visualising Community Resilience
6.1. Geospatial Information Visualisation
6.2. Multidimensional Information Visualisation
6.3. Dashboard
7. Discussion and Conclusions
- The number of components defined in the modelling step is diverse depending on a particular community at a specific time point for certain risks/targets. Nevertheless, we should not define too many components since they can be overlapping and difficult to break down into lower-level elements. Besides, end-users and stakeholders may find it difficult to understand and monitor a large number of components for giving precise actions, especially in the time of adversity.
- Various terminologies are available for modelling community resilience, some of which are, but not limited to, index, dimension, capital, capacity, and domain. The selection of the term highly relies on our practical use. For example, the resilience index, which is usually a combination of indicators, is appropriate for a quantitative assessment. On the other hand, resilience dimension/domain is more descriptive and suitable for qualitative approaches. In addition, resilience capital/capacity well expresses the potential and abilities of a community to achieve something.
- To measure community resilience, we can leverage not only static (e.g., vulnerabilities, hazards, and exposed values) but also dynamic information (e.g., dynamic risk perception extracted by analysing social media data) at different scales. Information collected at the community level regularly tends to be more informal, undocumented, and implicitly understood than higher scales. It is necessary for us first to determine the goals of our community, target potential end-users, and then stick into them before deciding on any particular approaches to measure resilience.
- This paper presented many studies that aimed at visualising correlation, hierarchy, and geospatial information; however, we should pay more attention to understanding and representing temporal information. Temporal information visualisation can capture common patterns and search for specific sequences, such as the dynamic of community resilience value by time. Area chart and polar area diagram are practical and efficient techniques [126] to portray temporal information of community resilience.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Level | Study/Project/Tool | Focus |
---|---|---|
Rural | Community Resilience Manual [37] | Community resources |
Insurance for Rural Resilience and Economic Development | Climate risks | |
(INSURED) [38] | ||
MIME Project [39] | Pre-hospital emergencies | |
McManus et al. [40] | Local economy, job, and environment | |
Ross and Clay [41] | Capital assets | |
Rural Coastal Community Resilience (RCCR) Framework [42] | Sea level rise and saltwater intrusion | |
Rural Diversity Index (RDI) [43] | Rural diversity | |
Rural Resilience Framework [44] | Climate change | |
Rural Social Protection [45] | Risks and threats | |
Steiner and Atterton [46] | Private sector enterprises | |
Withdrawal Mechanism for Rural Homesteads (WMRH) [47] | Land use policies | |
Woolvin [48] | Family estates | |
Urban | City Resilience Framework [49] | Stresses accumulate and sudden shocks |
City Resilience Roadmap [50] | Acute shocks and long-term stresses | |
Coastal Megacity Resilience Simulator (CMRS) [51] | Climate change | |
Disaster Resilience Index (DRI) [52] | Urban flood | |
Disaster Resilience Indicators [53] | Disasters | |
Disaster Resilience Scorecard for Cities [54] | Acute shocks (natural and man-made) | |
emBRACE Framework [55] | Disasters | |
European Resilience Management Guideline (ERMG) [56] | Climate change and social dynamics | |
FEW-Nexus City Index [57] | Food, energy, and water | |
Flood Resilience Index (FRI) [58] | Flood | |
Foundational Infrastructure Framework (FIF) [59] | Infrastructure sectors | |
Grosvenor Research [60] | Shocks and adverse events | |
ICLEI ACCCRN Process (IAP) [61] | Climate risks | |
Maturity Model (MM) [62] | City stakeholders | |
Porębska et al. [63] | Evacuation route planning and design | |
RESCCUE Project [64] | Multihazard threats and climate change | |
Resilience City Planning Framework (RCPF) [65] | Climate change and environmental risk | |
Resilience Diagnostic Tool [66] | Urban planning | |
Resiliency Cube [67] | Transportation network in earthquake | |
Risk Management Index (RMI) [68] | Urban disasters | |
TURaS Project [69] | Urban planning and policy | |
Urban Resilience Concept Note [70] | Shocks and stresses | |
Urban Resilience Index [71] | Urban social-ecological systems | |
Urban Resilience Framework [72] | Heterogeneous risk factors | |
Community | Analysis of Resilience of Communities to Disasters (ARC-D) Toolkit [73] | Disasters |
Australian Natural Disaster Resilience Index [74] | Hot-spots of high or low disasters | |
Baseline Resilience Indicators for Communities (BRIC) [75] | Disasters | |
Bay Localize Community Resilience Toolkit [76] | Community assets | |
Chandra et al. [77] | National health security | |
Climate-related Disaster Community Resilience Framework | Climate-related disasters | |
(CDCRF) [78] | ||
Community Advancing Resilience Toolkit (CART) [79] | All-hazards environment | |
Community And Regional Resilience Initiative (CARRI) Research | Natural and human-made disasters | |
Report [80] | ||
Community Based Resilience Analysis (CoBRA) [81] | Crises and disasters | |
Community Disaster Resilience Index (CDRI) [82,83] | Disasters | |
Community Disaster Resilience Toolkit [84] | Disasters | |
Community Resilience Framework (CRDSA) [85,86] | Disasters | |
Community Resilience Index [87] | Natural hazards | |
Community Resilience System (CRS) [88,89] | Man-made and natural disasters | |
Community Self-Assessment [90] | Disasters | |
Conjoint Community Resilience Assessment Measurement | Emergencies | |
(CCRAM) [91] | ||
Costs, Opportunities, Benefits, and Risks Analysis (COBRA) | E-government services | |
Framework [92] | ||
Disaster Resilience of Place (DROP) Model [93] | Natural disasters | |
Flood Resilience Measurement for Communities (FRMC) [94] | Flood | |
Framework for Community Resilience (FCR) [95] | Disasters, crises, shocks and stresses | |
IMPROVER Project [96] | Critical infrastructure | |
Jordan and Javernick-Will [97] | Disasters | |
Localized Disaster-Resilience Index [98] | Disasters | |
Moreno et al. [99] | Tsunami | |
Natural Hazard Resilience Screening Index (NaHRSI) [100] | Natural hazard events | |
Pilquimán-Vera et al. [101] | Community based tourism | |
PEOPLES Resilience Framework [102] | Extreme events or disasters | |
POP-ALERT Project [103] | Crises and cross-border disasters | |
Rabinovich et al. [104] | Soil erosion | |
Rahman and Kausel [105] | Tsunami | |
RELi Resilience Action List & Credit Catalog [106] | Next generation community | |
Resilience Matrix (RM) [107] | Disruptive events in coastal areas | |
Resilience Modelling Tool [108] | Natural hazards | |
School-Community Collaborative Network (SCCN) Conceptual | Disaster education | |
Model [109] | ||
Sherrieb et al. [110] | Economic development and social capital | |
Shesh Kanta Kafle [111] | Disasters | |
Tool for Health and Resilience in Vulnerable Environments | Health, safety, and health equity | |
(THRIVE) [112] | ||
Uddin et al. [113] | Cyclone and storm surge disasters |
Number of Components | Focus | Year | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Three components | Acute shocks (natural and man-made) | 2017 | [54] |
Climate-related disasters | 2012 | [78] | |
Community based tourism | 2020 | [101] | |
Disasters | 2017 | [55] | |
Economic development and social capital | 2010 | [110] | |
Food, energy, and water | 2018 | [57] | |
Health, safety, and health equity | 2004 | [112] | |
Local economy, job, and environment | 2012 | [40] | |
Private sector enterprises | 2015 | [46] | |
Risks and threats | 2020 | [45] | |
Urban planning and policy | 2016 | [69] | |
Four components | Acute shocks and long-term stresses | 2019 | [50] |
All-hazards environment | 2013 | [79] | |
Community resources | 2000 | [37] | |
Disasters | 2010 | [82] | |
2013 | [97] | ||
2014 | [84] | ||
Family estates | 2013 | [48] | |
Land use policies | 2018 | [47] | |
Man-made and natural disasters | 2014 | [88] | |
Natural hazards | 2015 | [108] | |
Next generation community | 2014 | [106] | |
Rural diversity | 2014 | [43] | |
Stresses accumulate and sudden shocks | 2015 | [49] | |
Five components | Climate change | 2013 | [51] |
Disasters | 2010 | [53] | |
Flood | 2016 | [58] | |
2019 | [94] | ||
Sea level rise and saltwater intrusion | 2017 | [42] | |
Soil erosion | 2019 | [104] | |
Six components | Community assets | 2009 | [76] |
Critical infrastructure | 2018 | [96] | |
Disasters | 2014 | [75] | |
2015 | [85,86] | ||
2016 | [83] | ||
Disasters, crises, shocks and stresses | 2014 | [95] | |
Emergencies | 2013 | [91] | |
Natural disasters | 2008 | [93] | |
Urban flood | 2019 | [52] | |
Seven components | Disasters | 2010 | [90] |
2013 | [98] | ||
Extreme events or disasters | 2016 | [102] | |
More than seven components | Cyclone and storm surge disasters | 2020 | [113] |
Disasters | 2020 | [73] | |
Hot-spots of high or low disasters | 2016 | [74] | |
Infrastructure sectors | 2017 | [59] | |
Man-made and natural disasters | 2013 | [89] | |
National health security | 2011 | [77] | |
Shocks and adverse events | 2014 | [60] | |
Tsunami | 2013 | [105] |
Property | Description |
---|---|
Adaptation | The ability of a community in overcoming regular evaluation and alteration to adjust,update, and acclimate to resilience standards over time |
Attribute | The concept of community resilience should be comprehended in not only as an internalresident but also as a general entity |
Continuity | The requirement of having inherent, dynamic, and persistent characteristic to guaranteecommunity resilience |
Dependency | The interaction and integration with a wide range of related models and frameworks tobuild community resilience |
Dynamic | The effective utilisation and enhancement of resources to repair, reconstruct, and recoverfrom surprising events quickly |
Equity | The quality of being fair and impartial for all community members towards basic humanneeds, no matter who they are, regardless of origin, race, gender, or whatever |
Orientation | The utilisations of predicate assumptions to guarantee that the model will follow defineddirections strictly |
Ownership | The acts, states, and rights of communities in owning resources collectively and securely |
Rapidity | The capability of a community to prepare, respond, adapt, and recover from disruptiveevents promptly |
Redundancy | The diversity in giving solutions or strategies in a particular situation |
Resourcefulness | The latent qualities or potentiality to mobilise in menacing circumstances |
Robustness | The capacity of a community in withstanding the actions or effects of adverse shocks |
Simplicity | The ability to transform important and complicated factors into a simple model thatallow measuring community resilience easily |
Sustainability | The potentiality to maintain resources good enough for producing in the future |
Trajectory | The accomplishment of positive outcomes that is relative to “after” state of entities |
Quality | The crucial goods and services used to evaluate whether a community achieves goodstandards, some of which are purified air, healthy food, and safe transportation |
Approach | Focus | Outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Qualitative | All-hazards environment | 4-stage process for identifying issues, solving problems, and planning activities | [79] |
Climate risks | 6-phase process (4 phases for preparation and 2 phases for implementation and monitoring) | [61] | |
Community based tourism | Relationship between tourism experiences with community resilience processes | [101] | |
Evacuation route planning and design | Limits of punctual treatments and impacts on dimensions of urban walkability | [63] | |
Man-made and natural disasters | 6-stage process with detailed guidance, tools, and resources identified for each module | [89] | |
National health security | Roadmap used as a starting point to develop local community resilience strategy | [77] | |
Soil erosion | Impacts on soil erosion based on social, psychological, and cultural parameters | [104] | |
Stresses accumulate and sudden shocks | 4 categories, 12 goals, 52 indicators, and 156 variables for city resilience | [49] | |
Tsunami | Strength and weakness of tsunami preparedness based on eight resilience elements | [105] | |
Analysis of resilience capacities and resources activated to cope with disaster | [99] | ||
Quantitative | Acute shocks (natural and man-made) | Resilience scores for preliminary (from 0 to 30) and detailed assessment (from 0 to 180) | [54] |
Climate change | Space time dynamic resilience measure (ST-DRM) | [51] | |
Disasters | Disaster resilience score ranging between 22 and 110 | [84] | |
Community disaster resilience index for 4 capital indices across 4 management phases | [82] | ||
A single, scalar measure combined from six multidimensional components | [83] | ||
Resilience index based on the percentage of check marks and the number of Yes answers | [90] | ||
Disaster-resilience index score based on process- and outcome-indicator scores | [98] | ||
Economic development and social capital | Composite scores of economic development, social capital and community resilience | [110] | |
Health, safety, and health equity | Top three priorities to increase health and safety and reduce health inequities | [112] | |
Natural hazards | Composite resilience index ranging between 0 and 100 | [108] | |
Rural diversity | Rural diversity index ranging between 0 and 1 | [43] | |
Shocks and adverse events | Overall rank along with vulnerability, adaptive capacity, and resilience scores | [60] | |
Hybrid | Community resources | Community portrait involving community perceptions, attitudes, feelings, and others | [37] |
Community assets | Toolkit for specific resources and action ideas in six key sectors | [76] | |
Disasters | 19 indicators of recovery along with rating of the importance of each indicator | [97] | |
Resilience framework involving 7 to 14 criteria in each of six defined dimensions | [85] | ||
Disaster education | Conceptual model for collaborative network and knowledge management | [109] | |
Disruptive events in coastal areas | Resilience Matrix (RM) framework with performance score for each cell ranging from 0 to 1 | [107] | |
Land use policies | Rural resilience assessment index ranging between 0 and 1 | [47] | |
Natural and human-made disasters | Resilience baseline and its schematic representation based on GIS methodology | [80] | |
Urban disasters | Risk management index ranging between 0 and 100 | [68] |
Reference | Step/Stage/Phase | Description |
---|---|---|
[61] | 1. Engagement | Determine key stakeholders, set up coordination and reporting structures,and conduct a preliminary measurement of the city’s progress to tackleclimate change |
2. Climate research and impacts assessment | Analyse climate change data, build a projection of likely climate changes,and evaluate the impact on critical urban systems and resultant risks | |
3. Vulnerabilities assessment | Produce maps of high priority climate risks, measure the impact on themost vulnerable groups of people, and inspect the adaptive capability | |
4. Resilience strategy | Construct a list of feasible adaptation activities, prioritise interventions,link to existing city plans, and aggregate all the essential information | |
5. Implementation | Determine funding options, distribute responsibilities and resources, andput the initiatives into effect | |
6. Monitoring and review | Set up performance indicators and reporting systems, monitor and reportagainst defined indicators, and initiate review phase | |
[77] | 1. Wellness and access | Promote pre- and post-incident population health and guarantee access tosocial services, high-quality and behavioural health |
2. Education | Make certain that information is available to public concerning risks,preparedness, and resources before, during, and after a disaster | |
3. Engagement and self-sufficiency | Encourage participatory decision-making in planning, response andrecovery activities and support individuals/communities in assumingresponsibility for their preparedness | |
4. Partnership | Grow evolving, reliable, and strong partnerships within and betweengovernment and nongovernmental organisations | |
5. Quality and efficiency | Collect, analyse, and make use of data to build community resilience andleverage resources for multiple use and maximal helpfulness | |
[79] | 1. Generation | Create an initial community profile through local demographics, CARTsurvey data, and key informant interviews |
2. Refinement | Determine and analyse assets and needs through CART communityconversations, infrastructure mapping, ecological mapping of localrelationships, stakeholder analysis, and other group processes | |
3. Development | Build a strategic plan to construct targets and objectives by interacting ingroups with the involvement of formal and informal community leaders | |
4. Implementation | Adopt and implement the strategic plan by spreading the plan amongcommunity members, organisations, and leaders | |
[89] | 1. Engagement | Seek for resilience champions, organise them into a logical and consistentleadership team, and build well-established and trusted communitynetworks |
2. Assessment | Derive self awareness by comprehending its interdependencies andvulnerabilities, categorise its accessible resources, and discover whichresources are at risk | |
3. Visioning | Give a summary of the importance of possessing a resilience-focusedvision and explain how community can include resilience into an existingvision or generate a new vision | |
4. Planning | Link present state of community and determine a series of activities thatare particular, assessable, and supportive of improved daily communityfunction | |
5. Implementing | Ensure an organisational home for community resilience program eitherthrough establishing a new organisational entity or by integrating intoexisting public or private organisations | |
6. Monitoring and maintenance | Monitor and assess the progress of individual projects and entirecommunity resilience program, making adjustments and alterations asrequired |
Type of Visualisation | Technique | Focus | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Geospatial information | Density map | Disasters | [53,75,83] |
Economic development and social capital | [110] | ||
Flood | [58] | ||
Hot-spots of high or low disasters | [74] | ||
Natural hazards | [87,108] | ||
Urban social-ecological systems | [71] | ||
Multidimensional information | Stacked bar chart | Crises and disasters | [81] |
Shocks and adverse events | [60] | ||
Spider chart | Crises and disasters | [81] | |
Disasters | [73] | ||
Soil erosion | [104] | ||
Tsunami | [105] | ||
Urban planning | [66] | ||
Radial stacked bar chart | Natural hazard events | [100] | |
Stresses accumulate and sudden shocks | [49] | ||
Urban planning and policy | [69] | ||
Hypercube | Cyclone and storm surge disasters | [113] | |
Transportation network in earthquake | [67] | ||
Others | Bar chart | Food, energy, and water | [57] |
Urban flood | [52] |
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Nguyen, H.L.; Akerkar, R. Modelling, Measuring, and Visualising Community Resilience: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7896. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12197896
Nguyen HL, Akerkar R. Modelling, Measuring, and Visualising Community Resilience: A Systematic Review. Sustainability. 2020; 12(19):7896. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12197896
Chicago/Turabian StyleNguyen, Hoang Long, and Rajendra Akerkar. 2020. "Modelling, Measuring, and Visualising Community Resilience: A Systematic Review" Sustainability 12, no. 19: 7896. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12197896