Resilience Thinking as a System Approach to Promote China’s Sustainability Transitions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Resilience of Urban-Rural Systems
2.1. Rationale of Resilience Thinking
2.2. Adaptation and Transformation as the Key to Sustainability Transitions
3. Policy Reforms and Institutional Changes Driving China’s Urbanization
3.1. Four Periods of China’s Urbanization since 1949
3.2. Main Challenges for China’s Sustainability Transitions
3.2.1. Inefficient Land Use and Land Management
3.2.2. Inadequate City Management and Administration
3.2.3. Regional and Urban-Rural Disparities
4. Implications of Resilience Thinking for Sustainability Transitions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B. History Review
Appendix B.1. Conservative Development (before 1984)
Appendix B.2. City-Biased Development (1984 to 2002)
Appendix B.3. Rapid Urbanization (2002 to 2012)
Appendix B.4. Quality Development (2012 to Present)
Appendix C
Year | Population (million) | Urban Population (million) | Rural Population (million) | Urban Disposable Income per Capita (RMB) | Rural Disposable Income per Capita(RMB) | Urbanization Level (%) | Number of Cities | Urban Area (km2) | Area of Built District (km2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1978 | 962.59 | 172.45 | 790.14 | 343.40 | 133.60 | 17.92 | 193 | − | − |
1979 | 975.42 | 184.95 | 790.47 | 405.00 | 160.20 | 18.96 | 216 | − | − |
1980 | 987.05 | 191.40 | 795.65 | 477.60 | 191.30 | 19.39 | 223 | − | − |
1981 | 1000.72 | 201.71 | 799.01 | 500.40 | 223.40 | 20.16 | 226 | 206,684.00 | 7438.00 |
1982 | 1016.54 | 214.80 | 801.74 | 535.30 | 270.10 | 21.13 | 245 | 335,382.30 | 7862.00 |
1983 | 1030.08 | 222.74 | 807.34 | 564.60 | 309.80 | 21.62 | 281 | 366,315.90 | 8156.30 |
1984 | 1043.57 | 240.17 | 803.40 | 652.10 | 355.30 | 23.01 | 300 | 480,733.30 | 9249.00 |
1985 | 1058.51 | 250.94 | 807.57 | 739.10 | 397.60 | 23.71 | 324 | 458,066.20 | 9386.20 |
1986 | 1075.07 | 263.66 | 811.41 | 900.90 | 423.80 | 24.52 | 353 | 805,834.00 | 10127.30 |
1987 | 1093.00 | 276.74 | 816.26 | 1002.20 | 462.60 | 25.32 | 381 | 898,208.00 | 10,816.50 |
1988 | 1110.26 | 286.61 | 823.65 | 1180.20 | 544.90 | 25.81 | 434 | 1,052,374.20 | 12,094.60 |
1989 | 1127.04 | 295.40 | 831.64 | 1375.70 | 601.50 | 26.21 | 450 | 1,137,643.50 | 12,462.20 |
1990 | 1143.33 | 301.95 | 841.38 | 1510.20 | 686.30 | 26.41 | 467 | 1,165,970.00 | 12,855.70 |
1991 | 1158.23 | 312.03 | 846.20 | 1700.60 | 708.60 | 26.94 | 479 | 980,685.00 | 14,011.10 |
1992 | 1171.71 | 321.75 | 849.96 | 2026.60 | 784.00 | 27.46 | 517 | 96,978.00 | 14,958.70 |
1993 | 1185.17 | 331.73 | 853.44 | 2577.40 | 921.60 | 27.99 | 570 | 1,038,910.00 | 16,588.30 |
1994 | 1198.50 | 341.69 | 856.81 | 3496.20 | 1221.00 | 28.51 | 622 | 1,104,712.00 | 17,939.50 |
1995 | 1211.21 | 351.74 | 859.47 | 4283.00 | 1577.70 | 29.04 | 640 | 1,171,698.00 | 19,264.20 |
1996 | 1223.89 | 373.04 | 850.85 | 4838.90 | 1926.10 | 30.48 | 666 | 987,077.90 | 20,214.20 |
1997 | 1236.26 | 394.49 | 841.77 | 5160.30 | 2090.10 | 31.91 | 668 | 835,771.80 | 20,791.30 |
1998 | 1247.61 | 416.08 | 831.53 | 5425.10 | 2162.00 | 33.35 | 668 | 813,585.70 | 21,379.60 |
1999 | 1257.86 | 437.48 | 820.38 | 5854.00 | 2210.30 | 34.78 | 667 | 812,817.60 | 21,524.50 |
2000 | 1267.43 | 459.06 | 808.37 | 6255.70 | 2282.10 | 36.22 | 663 | 878,015.00 | 22,439.30 |
2001 | 1276.27 | 480.64 | 795.63 | 6824.00 | 2406.90 | 37.66 | 662 | 607,644.30 | 24,026.60 |
2002 | 1284.53 | 502.12 | 782.41 | 7652.40 | 2558.90 | 39.09 | 660 | 467,369.30 | 25,972.60 |
2003 | 1292.27 | 523.76 | 768.51 | 8405.50 | 2690.30 | 40.53 | 660 | 399,173.20 | 28,308.00 |
2004 | 1299.88 | 542.83 | 757.05 | 9334.80 | 3026.60 | 41.76 | 661 | 394,672.50 | 30,406.20 |
2005 | 1307.56 | 562.12 | 745.44 | 10,382.30 | 3370.20 | 42.99 | 661 | 412,819.10 | 32,520.70 |
2006 | 1314.48 | 582.88 | 731.60 | 11,619.70 | 3731.00 | 44.34 | 656 | 166,533.50 | 33,659.80 |
2007 | 1321.29 | 606.33 | 714.96 | 13,602.50 | 4327.00 | 45.89 | 655 | 176,065.50 | 35,469.70 |
2008 | 1328.02 | 624.03 | 703.99 | 15,549.40 | 4998.80 | 46.99 | 655 | 178,110.30 | 36,295.30 |
2009 | 1334.50 | 645.12 | 689.38 | 16,900.50 | 5435.10 | 48.34 | 654 | 175,463.60 | 38,107.30 |
2010 | 1340.91 | 669.78 | 671.13 | 18,779.10 | 6272.40 | 49.95 | 657 | 178,691.70 | 40,058.00 |
2011 | 1347.35 | 690.79 | 656.56 | 21,426.90 | 7393.90 | 51.27 | 657 | 183,618.00 | 43,603.20 |
2012 | 1354.04 | 711.82 | 642.22 | 24,126.70 | 8389.30 | 52.57 | 657 | 183,039.40 | 45,565.80 |
2013 | 1360.72 | 731.11 | 629.61 | 26,467.00 | 9429.60 | 53.73 | 658 | 183,416.10 | 47,855.30 |
2014 | 1367.82 | 749.16 | 618.66 | 28,843.90 | 10,488.90 | 54.77 | 653 | 184,098.60 | 49,772.60 |
2015 | 1374.62 | 771.16 | 603.46 | 31,194.80 | 11,421.70 | 56.10 | 656 | 191,775.50 | 52,102.30 |
2016 | 1382.71 | 792.98 | 589.73 | 33,616.20 | 12,363.40 | 57.35 | 657 | 198,178.60 | 54,331.50 |
2017 | 1390.08 | 813.47 | 576.61 | 36,396.20 | 13,432.40 | 58.52 | 661 | 198,357.20 | 56,225.40 |
2018 | 1395.38 | 831.37 | 564.01 | 39,250.80 | 14,617.00 | 59.58 | 672 | 200,896.50 | 58,455.70 |
2019 | 1400.05 | 848.43 | 551.62 | 42,359.00 | 16,021.00 | 60.60 | − | − | − |
Appendix D
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Period | Year | Urbanization Level (%) | Key Policies and Reforms | Domain |
---|---|---|---|---|
Conservative development | 1950 | 11.18 | The Land Reform Law of the People’s Republic of China transferred land ownership to the peasant class, by which farmers gained land ownership while the allocation of farmland was equalized. This formed an equalized environment for agricultural development and the industrialization of China [59] (pp. 34–35). | Land management |
1952 | 12.46 | The 1st Five-year Plan (1953–1957) promoted heavy-industry factories in the planned economy; rural population were encouraged to immigrate for employment opportunities in cities, especially in the western part of China; science and technology (S&T) policy nevertheless concentrated on military defences, such as space conquest and atomic bombs [60,61,62]. | Economic activities and financial strategies; Labour management; Science and technology | |
1958 | 16.25 | The Household Registration System (hukou) was introduced, which divided the population into agricultural (or rural) and non-agricultural (or urban), prohibited free rural-to-urban migration, and controlled population movement [63]. | Labour management | |
1961 | 19.29 | The Readjustment, Consolidation, Strengthening, and Improvement was implemented to prioritize agriculture and light industries while reducing urban population. | Economic activities and financial strategies; Labour management | |
1966 | 17.86 | The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution compressed the industrialization, technological development, and urbanization processes. | Political activities | |
1979 | 18.96 | The Household Responsibility System was adopted, by which local managers are held responsible for the profits and losses of an enterprise. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |
The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Equity Joint Ventures was enacted to expand international economic co-operation and technological exchange [64]. | Economic activities and financial strategies; Science and technology | |||
1982 | 21.13 | The Constitution was amended to allow the use of foreign investment for an export-oriented economy. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |
City-biased development | 1984 | 23.01 | The Notice on the Question of the Rural Migrant Population was issued to allow rural labour to enter the cities. | Labour management |
The City Planning Ordinance was promulgated and enacted as China’s first national regulation of urban planning and management [65]. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
1986 | 24.52 | The 7th Five Year Plan (1986–1990) launched a policy to promote the development of rural industries along with the urbanization process by relocating rural surplus labour while prevented them from flooding into large cities [53]. | Economic activities and financial strategies; Labour management | |
1988 | 25.81 | The modified Land Administration allowed the transfer of land use rights with payment. | Land management | |
The Tentative Stipulations on Private Enterprise was issued to acknowledge and sanction private enterprises [66]. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |||
1993 | 27.99 | The ‘Blue-stamp hukou’ was created to allow rural immigrants to gain access to the right of residence and limited benefits in urban areas, but still barred from most urban social services [2]. | Labour management | |
1994 | 28.51 | The Tax Sharing Fiscal System was introduced to share tax revenue between the local and central governments [8]. | Financial management | |
1995 | 29.04 | The Catalogue for the Guidance of Industries for Foreign Investment was issued to allow foreign capital investments into the industrial sectors for the sake of technology transfer [60]. | Economic activities and financial strategies; Science and technology | |
1998 | 33.35 | To Promote the Development of Small Cities and Towns’ was proposed as a national strategy to facilitate rural economic and social development [67]. | Urban-rural development and management | |
The Land Administration Law was revised, stipulating that the state and collectives are the owner and supplier of urban and rural lands which can only be transferred after being requisitioned by the governments [8,68,69]. | Land management | |||
2000 | 36.22 | The Opinions on Promoting the Development of Small Towns provided guidance and strategies for urban planning and development in small cities and towns. Urbanization rate was measured by urban ‘hukou’ population and rural migrants in urban employment for more than half a year [70]. | Urban-rural development and management | |
The rural tax and fee collection system were reformed to reduce the tax and fee burdens of rural residents. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |||
2001 | 37.66 | The Policy Suggestions on Accelerating the Development of Services were made to enhance the proportion of the service industry in the economic structure. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights was released to enforce intellectual property rights. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |||
Rapid urbanization | 2002 | 39.09 | The Coordinated Urban-rural Development Strategy declared that socio-economic development must incorporate urban and rural areas alike [71]. | Urban-rural development and management |
The Regulation on Assessing the Right to the Use of the State-owned Land by Bid Invitation, Auction and Listing was implemented. | Land management | |||
2003 | 40.53 | A strict land quota system was introduced to restrain local governments from requisition new land in large cities and to encourage urban redevelopment. | Land management | |
2004 | 41.76 | The Notice for Further Understanding the Enforcement and Supervision over Assigning the Right to the Use of the State-owned Land by Bid Invitation, Auction and Listing specified that all lands for operation shall be assigned by the bid invitation, auction and listing system nationwide. | Land management | |
2006 | 44.34 | The Medium- to Long-term Plan for Science and Technology Development (2006–2020) was released to further stimulate the economy by encouraging technological progress and innovation. | Science and technology | |
All lands for industrial use was covered by the bid invitation, auction, and listing system for the first time. | Land management | |||
A national ‘red line’ was set to maintain a minimum of 120 million ha of arable land to ensure long-term food security [72,73]. | Land management | |||
12 of the 31 provinces in China eliminated the classification division between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou. | Labour management | |||
The agricultural tax was abolished to bring prosperity to rural areas and coordinate the urban-rural development. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |||
The National Urban System Plan proposed city clusters as institutionalized governance coordination and cooperation mechanisms across local administrations. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
2007 | 45.89 | The Property Law specified that ‘individuals can possess a land-use right’. Chengdu prefecture was appointed as the pilot for titling and registering all rural land, establishing rural property rights exchange, and allowing to retain land use rights after obtaining urban ‘hukou’ [74]. | Economic activities and financial strategies; Urban development and management; Land management | |
2008 | 46.99 | A 4 trillion RMB stimulus package was announced to stimulate infrastructure and the real estate market. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |
The Urban and Rural Planning Law emphasized the urban-rural integration. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
Megacities such as Shanghai and Shenzhen offered permanent residence with a scoring system [2]. | Labour management | |||
2009 | 48.34 | The Tradable Development Quotas were employed by which the land converted for urban construction was balanced by restoring equivalent rural construction land [74,75]. | Land management | |
Quality development | 2012 | 52.57 | The eighteenth National Congress proposed to ‘strengthen the overall planning of urban and rural development, enhance the vitality of rural development, narrow the gap between urban and rural area.’ [76]. | Urban-rural development and management |
2014 | 54.77 | The National New-Type Urbanization Plan (2014–2020) defined the new rural construction and urbanization [77]. | Urban-rural development and management | |
2015 | 56.10 | The Supply-side Structural Reform was released to readjust the supply and demand [78]. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |
The Integrated Reform Plan for Promoting Ecological Progress was set up to improve environmental conservation and green development [79]. | Environmental conservation | |||
The Opinions on Strengthening Urban-Rural Community Consultation was issued to establish multi-actor partnerships and community planning [80]. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
2017 | 58.52 | The “Lucid waters and Lush Mountains are Invaluable Assets” movement was initiated to promote green development [81]. | Environmental conservation | |
The Notice of the State Council on Several Measures for Expanding Opening Up and Vigorously Using Foreign Capital was released to allow foreign investment into the manufacturing and service sectors [82]. | Economic activities and financial strategies | |||
The ‘Rural Revitalization’ strategy was put forward as a central directive on rural development at the 19th National Congress. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
The Promotion Plan for the Readjustment of Inefficient Urban Land Use was enacted to promote efficient land use in cities and towns. | Land management; Urban-rural development and management | |||
The Guidance for Strengthening Urban Rehabilitation Work for Ecological Restoration was issued to modify and renew ecosystems within cities through nature-based solutions. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
2018 | 59.58 | The Rural Vitalization Strategy (2018–2022) released a five-year plan to improve rural development and governance [83]. | Urban-rural development and management | |
2019 | 60.60 | The New Urbanization Boost stated that cities with a population under 3 million should remove all limits on hukou while restrictions for cities with populations between 3 million and 5 million being relaxed [84]. | Urban-rural development and management | |
The Guiding Opinions on Strengthening and Improving Rural Governance was issued and distributed nationwide to build the governance system and capacity in the countryside [85]. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
The Guidelines for the Development of Modern Metropolitan Areas introduced the concept of the metropolis [86]. | Urban-rural development and management | |||
2020 | − | China’s new Foreign Investment Law ensures access to government procurement markets through fair competition for foreign-invested enterprises and bans forcing foreign investors and firms to transfer technology [87]. | Economic activities and financial strategies |
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Li, Q. Resilience Thinking as a System Approach to Promote China’s Sustainability Transitions. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5008. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125008
Li Q. Resilience Thinking as a System Approach to Promote China’s Sustainability Transitions. Sustainability. 2020; 12(12):5008. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125008
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Qirui. 2020. "Resilience Thinking as a System Approach to Promote China’s Sustainability Transitions" Sustainability 12, no. 12: 5008. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125008
APA StyleLi, Q. (2020). Resilience Thinking as a System Approach to Promote China’s Sustainability Transitions. Sustainability, 12(12), 5008. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125008