Socioecological Transition in Land and Labour Exploitation in Mallorca: From Slavery to a Low-Wage Workforce, 1229–1576
Abstract
:1. Feudal Colonialism, Slavery and Wage Labour in the Mediterranean
2. Sources, Dataset and Methodology Used
3. Feudal Colonisation and Slave Labour in Mallorca (1229–1500)
- (1)
- First, obtaining slave labour did not depend on an internal reproduction process. This is shown by the high rate of male slaves in the slave gangs recorded in the landowners’ inventories and purchase-and-sale contracts. After the Black Death, slave imports represented a serious competition for free wage labour. Imports from the Levantine slave markets became the flow that supplied the internal demand. Until the end of the 15th century the slaves imported were in 80% young men coming from the Black Sea and recorded as Russians, Tartars or Muslims. Only from then on there appeared black men coming from Africa, but they represented only about 18% of the total slaves sold [27,44,63,64].
- (2)
- In addition, the local authorities provided maritime and military facilities to this slave trade and surveillance and the market requiring the greatest regulatory effort was that of slave labour. The royal authorities also facilitated the drawing up of commercial self-rescue contracts (known as ‘talla’ and ‘alforria’ in Catalan), through which slaves could buy their own liberation when they got older, their work performance was expected to start to decline and their purchase price had already been amortised by their owners [64,65,66,67].
- (3)
- The administrative and judicial system of the Kingdom of Mallorca provided legal cover for the system of slave control, which was in the hands of officials from the royalty and nobility. The first legislation was introduced in 1328 to control slave mobility, and to compensate the owners of fugitive slaves. Different regulations regarding the safe-keeping and custody of slave labour were drawn up by the authorities. The numerous laws and regulations passed by the Kingdom Assembly, or by the Crown of Aragon town councils [44,64], can only be compared to those passed in Barcelona [68]. The oldest one dates from 1354, and was followed by a long list whose scope could range from the city of Palma to the entire Kingdom until 1500. In addition, several local laws were passed at parish level, especially in coastal regions. At times, provisions regarding slaves were included in by-laws of a more general nature [63] (pp. 65–70). These rules established harsh punishments for fugitives, and for free men who facilitated their escape, which ranged from flogging –up to 100 lashes— to the amputation of limbs, and even the death penalty. Slave mobility and any kind of relationships with free citizens were also restricted. The monitoring of slaves control led to the restoration in 1380 of the watchman (‘mestre de guaita’), whose job thereafter consisted of slave surveillance [69].
- (4)
- The Kingdom of Mallorca authorities also ensured the right of owners to mistreat their slaves, with hardly any limitation. Although some specific requests were not explicitly accepted by the kings –considering they could encourage crime— they were implicitly tolerated. The owners’ right to ‘correct’ their slaves’ behaviour by mistreatment (‘tam corrigendo vel castigando’ [either amending or correcting]), especially by flogging, was confirmed although restricted de facto to slaves [70] (pp. 32,163,184). The development of this penal legislation was accompanied by procedures to compensate the owners of fugitive slaves, particularly those whose slaves had died during the persecution, or were later executed [63] (pp. 65–70). In short, the authorities definitively helped to ensure slave owners their livelihoods by providing them with all possible means to secure the control of the big slave prison in which the island of Mallorca had become. The consolidation of different forms of slavery, agrarian and urban, would not have been possible without the active policy of the Mallorcan authorities. The Kingdom’s judiciary power and the parliament were dominated by social groups made up of slave owners—i.e., gentlemen, the urban patriciate and also wealthy peasants. For them, ensuring the correct functioning of slavery was a fundamental issue. Yet, despite the major development in laws and regulations, non-compliance was also very common. In fact, the 1374 by-laws were either not complied with or repealed at the request of the island’s representative assemblies. The 1390 laws were repealed by the king himself, and the 1393 laws were repealed in 1401 in exchange for new taxes imposed by the king. Minor provisions relating to agrarian practices, such as the imposition of night imprisonment, were subject to transgressions with the owners’ tacit consent. Indeed, the night imprisonment order hampered the duties of shepherding, one of the slave occupations, and was not adhered to at the request of the owners themselves [50,63,64].
4. Enclosures, Land Appropriation and Estate Enlargement (1375–1575)
5. Livestock and Agricultural Specialisation after the Failure of Sugarcane Slave Plantation in Mallorca (1375–1575)
6. The Emergence of a Low-Wage Labour Market in the 16th Century
7. Concluding Remarks
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample of Probate Inventories | Register of 1511 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Inventories of Estates | Number of Family Lineages | Number of Farms | Number of Family Lineages | Number of Farms Purchased | |
1375–1575 | 1375–1575 | 1375–1575 | 1511 | 1511 | |
Noble (miles) | 79 | 44 | 173 | 87 | 192 |
Citizens (civis) | 32 | 20 | 76 | 78 | 115 |
Merchants et al. | 9 | 8 | 17 | 54 | 59 |
Total | 120 | 72 | 266 | 219 | 366 |
I Price of Slaves | II Rent of Slaves Hired on a Daily Basis in Building | III Wages of Free Day Labourers in Building | IV Slave Hiring/Wages of Free Day Labourers in Building | V All the Households Paying the Capitation Tax (‘morabatí’) | VI Rural Households Paying the Capitation Tax (‘morabatí’) | YEAR of the Tax Registers used to Account Households | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1390–1400 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 1364 |
1401–1410 | 108.5 | 98.3 | 127.4 | 77.2 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. |
1411–1420 | 126.8 | n.a. | 127.4 | n.a. | 78.7 | 96.6 | 1421 |
1421–1430 | 141.8 | 122.8 | 124.2 | 98.9 | 74.7 | 93.9 | 1427 |
1431–1440 | 149.1 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 63.4 | 81.2 | 1444 |
1441–1450 | 145.5 | 102.3 | 112.1 | 91.3 | 63.8 | 79.1 | 1451 |
Slaves/Estate | Number of Estates | Male Slaves | Female Slaves | Total Slaves |
1375–1400 | 11 | 7.4 | 1.6 | 9.0 |
1401–1450 | 12 | 9.1 | 2.4 | 11.5 |
1451–1500 | 24 | 6.4 | 1.5 | 7.9 |
1501–1550 | 55 | 4.1 | 1.1 | 5.3 |
1551–1575 | 18 | 0.9 | 0.4 | 1.3 |
Slaves/Farm | Number of Farms | Male Slaves | Female Slaves | Total Slaves |
1375–1400 | 17 | 4.8 | 1.1 | 5.8 |
1401–1450 | 23 | 4.7 | 1.3 | 6.0 |
1451–1500 | 47 | 3.3 | 0.8 | 4.0 |
1501–1550 | 109 | 2.1 | 0.6 | 2.7 |
1551–1575 | 70 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 |
Social Groups | 1511 Register of Farms Bought % | 151 Register of Vineyard Plots Bought % | 1511 Register of Houses & Mills % | 1511 Register of Total Purchases % | 1375–1575 Sample of Inventories of Large Estates Inventories % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aristocracy | 51.4 | 45.2 | 47.2 | 49.4 | 64.8 |
Patricians | 32.4 | 34.9 | 28.1 | 32.4 | 28.7 |
Merchants | 3.9 | 11.0 | 4.5 | 5.6 | 6.5 |
Professionals | 7.2 | 5.5 | 9.0 | 7.1 | - |
Craftsmen, lawyers & notaries | 5.1 | 3.4 | 11.2 | 5.6 | - |
TOTAL | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Regions of the Island | % of the Mallorcan territory | Inhabitants/Km2 | % Distribution of Large Land Ownership in the 1511 Register | % Distribution of Large Land Ownership in the Inventories 1375–1575 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Llevant | 16.1 | 7.4 | 14.7 | 3.1 |
Migjorn | 23.9 | 8.7 | 18.2 | 32.6 |
Pla | 21.9 | 14.3 | 45.8 | 33.0 |
Raiguer | 9.9 | 24.1 | 5.4 | 5.7 |
Tramuntana | 28.2 | 11.7 | 15.8 | 25.7 |
Total | 100.0 | 13.2 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Farms & Livestock Heads per Estate | Farms/Estate | Oxen Draught Heads/Estate | Equines Draught Heads/Estate | Donkeys Draught Heads/Estate | Cows & Calves Heads/Estate | Sheep Heads/Estate |
1375–1400 | 1.55 | 10.0 | 4.0 | 2.9 | 5.1 | 163.5 |
1401–1450 | 1.92 | 6.3 | 5.1 | 6.5 | 9.9 | 293.6 |
1451–1500 | 1.96 | 6.8 | 3.8 | 3.7 | 8.8 | 303.6 |
1501–1550 | 1.98 | 6.8 | 3.4 | 2.4 | 12.6 | 745.3 |
1551–1575 | 3.89 | 13.1 | 10.3 | 3.7 | 8.6 | 1213.6 |
Farms & Livestock Heads per FARM | Farms | Oxen Draught Heads /Farm | Equines Draught Heads /Farm | Donkeys Draught Heads/Farm | Cows & Calves Heads/Farm | Sheep Heads/Farm |
1375–1400 | 17 | 6.5 | 2.6 | 1.9 | 3.3 | 105.8 |
1401–1450 | 23 | 3.3 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 5.2 | 153.2 |
1451–1500 | 47 | 3.5 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 4.5 | 155.0 |
1501–1550 | 109 | 3.4 | 1.7 | 1.2 | 6.4 | 376.1 |
1551–1575 | 70 | 3.4 | 2.6 | 1.0 | 2.2 | 312.1 |
Masnou Farm, (Raiguer) 1350–1356 | % Slaves | % Labour Hired by the Day | % Foreman and Farm-workers | % Total |
Women | 3.2 | 3.2 | ||
Men | 49.8 | 18.1 | 28.9 | 96.8 |
Total | 49.8 | 21.4 | 28.9 | 100.0 |
Son Costa Farms (Pla), 1597–1602 | % Slaves | % Labour Hired by the Day | % Foreman and Farm-workers | % Total |
Women | 33.9 | 33.9 | ||
Men | 33.3 | 32.9 | 66.1 | |
Total | 67.1 | 32.9 | 100.0 | |
Son Gallard Farm (Palma) 1619–1623 | % Slaves | % Labour Hired by the Day | % Foreman and Farm-workers | % Total |
Women | 32.8 | 32.8 | ||
Men | 25.9 | 41.3 | 67.2 | |
Total | 58.6 | 41.3 | 100.0 |
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Jover-Avellà, G.; Mas-Forners, A.; Soto-Company, R.; Tello, E. Socioecological Transition in Land and Labour Exploitation in Mallorca: From Slavery to a Low-Wage Workforce, 1229–1576. Sustainability 2019, 11, 168. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010168
Jover-Avellà G, Mas-Forners A, Soto-Company R, Tello E. Socioecological Transition in Land and Labour Exploitation in Mallorca: From Slavery to a Low-Wage Workforce, 1229–1576. Sustainability. 2019; 11(1):168. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010168
Chicago/Turabian StyleJover-Avellà, Gabriel, Antoni Mas-Forners, Ricard Soto-Company, and Enric Tello. 2019. "Socioecological Transition in Land and Labour Exploitation in Mallorca: From Slavery to a Low-Wage Workforce, 1229–1576" Sustainability 11, no. 1: 168. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010168
APA StyleJover-Avellà, G., Mas-Forners, A., Soto-Company, R., & Tello, E. (2019). Socioecological Transition in Land and Labour Exploitation in Mallorca: From Slavery to a Low-Wage Workforce, 1229–1576. Sustainability, 11(1), 168. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010168