Towards a Green State: A Comparative Study on OECD Countries through Fuzzy-Set Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background: Categories of Green State
2.1. Ecological Authoritarian State
2.2. Ecological Modern State
2.3. Ecological Democracy State
2.4. Ecological Welfare State
3. Methodology and Measurement Framework
3.1. The Rationale of Fuzzy-Set Analysis
3.2. Fuzzy-Set Multiple Conjunctural Analysis and Ideal Type Analysis
3.3. Measurement Frameworks
4. Analysis Results and Implications
4.1. Findings of Fuzzy-Set Multiple Conjunctural Analysis
4.2. Findings of Fuzzy-Set Ideal Type Analysis
5. Conclusions: The Levels of Green State
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Features | Purpose | |
---|---|---|
Ecological Authoritarian State | the authoritarian intervention of the state, understood in the context of administrative rationalism | to enforce strict environmental restrictions for the sake of environmental policy |
Ecological Modern State | the emphasis on the coexistence of environmental protection and economic development | to overcome environmental problems policy-wise and maintain economic growth, emphasizing a socio-technical and economic reform |
Ecological Democracy State | democracy with the reciprocal relationship among human, nature, and non-human | to pursue alternative democracy with the features of deliberative and radical democracy |
Ecological Welfare State | the collaboration of environmental and welfare issues | to pursue environmental justice, focusing on both environmental protection and the inequality |
Variables (24 OECD Countries) | References (Year) * | ||
---|---|---|---|
Outcome Set | Sustainable Development Goal Index (SDGI) | SDSN and Bertelsmann Stiftung (2017) [65] | |
Causal Set | Category | Detailed Variables | |
Ecological Authoritarianism (A) | Environment-related Taxation | OECD Statistics (2011) [66] | |
Ecological Modernization (M) | Environment-related Innovation | OECD Statistics (2014) [67] | |
GDP per capita | OECD Statistics (2014) [67] | ||
Ecological Democracy (D) | Democracy Index | The Economist (2017) [68] | |
Environmental Governance | Environmental Sustainability Index (2005) [69] | ||
Ecological Welfare (W) | Welfare Expenditure | OECD Statistics (2011) [66] | |
Environmental Health | Environmental Performance Index (2018) [70] |
Category Variables | Detailed Variables | Weight |
---|---|---|
Ecological Authoritarianism (A) | Env.-related Taxation | 100% |
Ecological Modernization (M) | Env.-related Innovation | 50% |
GDP per capita | 50% | |
Ecological Democracy (D) | Democracy Index | 50% |
Env. Governance | 50% | |
Ecological Welfare (W) | Social Expenditure | 50% |
Environmental Health | 50% |
Fuzzy-Set Ideal Type | Features of Types |
---|---|
A*M*D*W | High Ecological Authoritarianism, Modernization, Democracy, Welfare |
A*M*D*w | High Ecological Authoritarianism, Modernization, Democracy, and Low ecological welfare |
A*M*d*W | High Ecological Authoritarianism, Modernization, Welfare, and Low ecological democracy |
A*M*d*w | High Ecological Authoritarianism, Modernization, and Low ecological democracy, welfare |
A*m*D*W | High Ecological Authoritarianism, Modernization, Welfare, and Low ecological democracy |
A*m*D*w | High Ecological Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Low ecological modernization, welfare |
A*m*d*W | High Ecological Authoritarianism, Welfare, and Low ecological modernization, democracy |
A*m*d*w | High Ecological Authoritarianism, and Low ecological modernization, democracy, welfare |
a*M*D*W | Low ecological authoritarianism, and High Ecological Modernization, Democracy, Welfare |
a*M*D*w | Low ecological authoritarianism, welfare, and High Ecological Modernization, Democracy |
a*m*D*W | Low ecological authoritarianism, modernization, and High Ecological Democracy, Welfare |
a*M*d*W | Low ecological authoritarianism, democracy, and High Ecological Modernization, Welfare |
a*M*d*w | Low ecological authoritarianism, democracy, welfare, and High Ecological Modernization |
a*m*D*w | Low ecological authoritarianism, modernization, welfare, and High Ecological Democracy |
a*m*d*W | Low ecological authoritarianism, modernization, democracy, and High Ecological Welfare |
a*m*d*w | Low ecological authoritarianism, modernization, democracy, welfare |
Arrange-ment | Causal Set | Outcome Set | Case Num. | Best Fit | Cons. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T | I | G | D | V | O | H | S (SDGI) | ||||
ET | EI | GDP | DEM | EG | SE | EH | |||||
TiGDVOHS | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | DEN, FIN | 0.986 |
tIGDVOHS | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | SWE, SUI | 0.974 |
TIGDVoHS | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | NED | 0.990 |
TiGDVOhS | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | AUT | 0.978 |
tiGDVoHS | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | NOR | 0.962 |
tIgdvOHS | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | FRA | 0.814 |
TiGDvoHS | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | IRE | 0.809 |
tIGdvoHS | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | AUS, CAN, USA | 0.792 |
tIgdvoHS | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | JPN | 0.789 |
TIgdvOhS | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | ITA | 0.771 |
TIgdvohS | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | KOR | 0.759 |
TigdvOHS | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | GRC | 0.623 |
TigdvohS | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | HUN | 0.481 |
tigdvohS | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | POL, SVK | 0.393 |
Arrangement | Verification Criteria | Num Best Fit | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benchmark ≥ 0.80, p < 0.05 | Y-con ≥ N-con, p < 0.05 | ||||||
Y-con | F | P | N-con | F | P | ||
tiGDVoH | 0.962 | 27.85 | 0.000 | 0.645 | 5.56 | 0.027 | 1 |
tiGDVOH | 0.966 | 37.93 | 0.000 | 0.696 | 5.49 | 0.028 | 0 |
tIGDVoH | 0.970 | 39.01 | 0.000 | 0.696 | 5.76 | 0.025 | 1 |
tIGDVOH | 0.974 | 52.88 | 0.000 | 0.706 | 6.08 | 0.022 | 1 |
TiGDVoH | 0.983 | 323.14 | 0.000 | 0.780 | 5.89 | 0.023 | 0 |
TiGDVOH | 0.986 | 510.44 | 0.000 | 0.652 | 7.50 | 0.012 | 2 |
TIGDVoH | 0.990 | 601.14 | 0.000 | 0.758 | 7.60 | 0.011 | 1 |
TIGDVOh | 0.987 | 328.79 | 0.000 | 0.870 | 4.84 | 0.038 | 0 |
TIGDVOH | 0.991 | 675.51 | 0.000 | 0.731 | 7.74 | 0.011 | 0 |
Set | Raw Coverage | Unique Coverage | Solution Cons. |
---|---|---|---|
T*I*G*D*V*O | 0.387 | 0.009 | 0.991 |
G*D*V*H | 0.667 | 0.288 | 0.980 |
Total Coverage = 0.675, Solution Consistency = 0.980 |
Type Country | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | Ideal Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AMDW | AMDw | AMdw | AmDW | AmDw | AmdW | Amdw | aMDW | aMDw | aMdW | aMdw | amdW | amdw | ||
NOR | 0.515 | 0.433 | 0.358 | 0.485 | 0.433 | 0.358 | 0.358 | 0.416 | 0.416 | 0.358 | 0.358 | 0.358 | 0.358 | 1: A*M*D*W (S-Green State) |
UK | 0.446 | 0.525 | 0.183 | 0.446 | 0.475 | 0.183 | 0.183 | 0.084 | 0.084 | 0.084 | 0.084 | 0.084 | 0.084 | 2: A*M*D*w |
SWE | 0.453 | 0.508 | 0.189 | 0.453 | 0.492 | 0.189 | 0.189 | 0.206 | 0.206 | 0.189 | 0.189 | 0.189 | 0.189 | |
USA | 0.047 | 0.304 | 0.578 | 0.047 | 0.304 | 0.047 | 0.422 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 3: A*M*d*w |
POL | 0.284 | 0.119 | 0.175 | 0.594 | 0.119 | 0.175 | 0.119 | 0.284 | 0.119 | 0.175 | 0.119 | 0.175 | 0.119 | 4: A*m*D*W |
SUI | 0.445 | 0.047 | 0.110 | 0.555 | 0.047 | 0.110 | 0.047 | 0.116 | 0.047 | 0.110 | 0.047 | 0.110 | ||
NED | 0.432 | 0.432 | 0.369 | 0.525 | 0.475 | 0.369 | 0.369 | 0.432 | 0.432 | 0.369 | 0.369 | 0.369 | 0.369 | |
JPN | 0.417 | 0.493 | 0.221 | 0.417 | 0.503 | 0.221 | 0.221 | 0.417 | 0.493 | 0.221 | 0.221 | 0.221 | 0.221 | 5: A*m*D*w |
SVK | 0.048 | 0.048 | 0.048 | 0.111 | 0.111 | 0.572 | 0.428 | 0.048 | 0.048 | 0.048 | 0.048 | 0.311 | 0.311 | 6: A*m*d*W |
ESP | 0.264 | 0.264 | 0.264 | 0.294 | 0.294 | 0.532 | 0.468 | 0.248 | 0.248 | 0.248 | 0.248 | 0.248 | 0.248 | |
PRT | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.050 | 0.050 | 0.088 | 0.599 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.088 | 0.401 | 7: A*m*d*w (EA State) |
KOR | 0.065 | 0.065 | 0.065 | 0.268 | 0.268 | 0.481 | 0.519 | 0.065 | 0.065 | 0.065 | 0.065 | 0.440 | 0.440 | |
FIN | 0.232 | 0.232 | 0.047 | 0.232 | 0.232 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.582 | 0.416 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 8: a*M*D*W |
GER | 0.274 | 0.274 | 0.109 | 0.274 | 0.274 | 0.109 | 0.109 | 0.506 | 0.290 | 0.109 | 0.109 | 0.109 | 0.109 | |
ITA | 0.497 | 0.481 | 0.176 | 0.425 | 0.425 | 0.176 | 0.176 | 0.503 | 0.481 | 0.176 | 0.176 | 0.176 | 0.176 | |
HUN | 0.352 | 0.352 | 0.285 | 0.308 | 0.308 | 0.285 | 0.285 | 0.490 | 0.510 | 0.285 | 0.285 | 0.285 | 0.285 | 9: a*M*D*w |
AUT | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.362 | 0.502 | 0.232 | 0.232 | 0.232 | 0.232 | |
BEL | 0.111 | 0.072 | 0.111 | 0.111 | 0.072 | 0.111 | 0.072 | 0.278 | 0.072 | 0.532 | 0.072 | 0.468 | 0.072 | 10: a*M*d*W |
AUS | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.304 | 0.304 | 0.377 | 0.623 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 11: a*M*d*w (EM State) |
FRA | 0.257 | 0.257 | 0.257 | 0.118 | 0.118 | 0.118 | 0.118 | 0.302 | 0.302 | 0.493 | 0.507 | 0.118 | 0.118 | |
DEN | 0.217 | 0.217 | 0.217 | 0.217 | 0.217 | 0.217 | 0.217 | 0.309 | 0.284 | 0.343 | 0.284 | 0.657 | 0.284 | 12: a*m*d*W (EW State) |
CAN | 0.154 | 0.154 | 0.154 | 0.190 | 0.190 | 0.190 | 0.190 | 0.154 | 0.154 | 0.154 | 0.154 | 0.611 | 0.285 | |
GRC | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.049 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.069 | 0.308 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.049 | 0.049 | 0.069 | 0.692 | 13: a*m*d*w (W-Green State) |
IRE | 0.071 | 0.071 | 0.071 | 0.077 | 0.104 | 0.077 | 0.423 | 0.071 | 0.071 | 0.071 | 0.071 | 0.077 | 0.577 |
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Huh, T.; Kim, Y.; Kim, J.H. Towards a Green State: A Comparative Study on OECD Countries through Fuzzy-Set Analysis. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3181. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093181
Huh T, Kim Y, Kim JH. Towards a Green State: A Comparative Study on OECD Countries through Fuzzy-Set Analysis. Sustainability. 2018; 10(9):3181. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093181
Chicago/Turabian StyleHuh, Taewook, Yunyoung Kim, and Jiyoung Hailiey Kim. 2018. "Towards a Green State: A Comparative Study on OECD Countries through Fuzzy-Set Analysis" Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3181. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093181
APA StyleHuh, T., Kim, Y., & Kim, J. H. (2018). Towards a Green State: A Comparative Study on OECD Countries through Fuzzy-Set Analysis. Sustainability, 10(9), 3181. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093181