Assessment of the Sustainability of the Territories Affected by Gully Head Advancements through Aerial Photography and Modeling Estimations: A Case Study on Samal Watershed, Iran
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Research Methodology
2.2.1. Gully Mapping by Using Aerial Photos and Soil Sampling Procedures
2.2.2. Mapping Geomorphological Features
2.2.3. Orthophotography Preparation for Image Analysis in 1968 and 1994
2.2.4. Measurement of Gully Head Advancement in 2009
2.2.5. Procedures of Gully Modeling to Estimate Head Advancement
2.2.6. Determining Which Key Factors Affect the Gully Head Advancement
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Soil Properties and Headcut Advancement Measurements
3.2. Gullies’ Head Advancement Measurements Using the Modeling Techniques
3.3.Comparison between the Model with Real Observed Data
3.4. Key Factors That Hide the Sustainability of the Territory by Gully Development
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gully No. | Sand (%) | Silt (%) | Clay (%) | SAR | CEC (cmolc kg−1) | pH | Limes (%) | OM (%) | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 66 | 21 | 13 | 1.16 | 5.15 | 7.65 | 63 | 0.26 | 1.2 |
2 | 69 | 19 | 12 | 0.42 | 5.35 | 7.5 | 60 | 0.32 | 1.4 |
3 | 84 | 8 | 8 | 0.53 | 4.35 | 7.45 | 60 | 0.19 | 2.7 |
4 | 77 | 13 | 10 | 9.44 | 3.5 | 8.1 | 63 | 0.18 | 2.4 |
5 | 58 | 26 | 16 | 4.52 | 5.7 | 7.95 | 63 | 0.26 | 1.3 |
6 | 68 | 18 | 14 | 1.29 | 4.05 | 7.45 | 72 | 0.21 | 1.3 |
7 | 74 | 16 | 10 | 11.3 | 7.8 | 8.1 | 64 | 0.2 | 2.5 |
8 | 58 | 31 | 11 | 10.3 | 6.9 | 8 | 60 | 0.18 | 1.6 |
9 | 91 | 1.5 | 7.5 | 0.6 | 3.25 | 7.7 | 70 | 0.11 | 0.5 |
10 | 86 | 6 | 8 | 0.68 | 3.25 | 7.75 | 65 | 0.15 | 0.6 |
11 | 87 | 5.3 | 7 | 0.63 | 3.05 | 7.7 | 75 | 0.14 | 0.6 |
12 | 59 | 35 | 6 | 0.46 | 5.65 | 7.6 | 68 | 0.21 | 1.3 |
13 | 57 | 29 | 14 | 0.59 | 5.15 | 7.75 | 71 | 0.17 | 1.75 |
14 | 64 | 25 | 11 | 3.14 | 5.1 | 7.6 | 63 | 0.24 | 2.2 |
15 | 66 | 27 | 7 | 2.04 | 4.75 | 7.75 | 64 | 0.29 | 1.1 |
16 | 72 | 17 | 11 | 1.43 | 4.95 | 7.7 | 60 | 0.2 | 0.95 |
17 | 73 | 16 | 11 | 1.93 | 5.15 | 8 | 63 | 0.19 | 2.2 |
18 | 62 | 24 | 14 | 1.24 | 5.65 | 7.95 | 55 | 0.22 | 1.1 |
19 | 63 | 26 | 11 | 1.31 | 4.8 | 7.6 | 66 | 0.26 | 1.1 |
20 | 91 | 3 | 6 | 0.29 | 2.6 | 7.6 | 63 | 0.14 | 0.5 |
21 | 76 | 11 | 13 | 1.17 | 4.8 | 7.55 | 64 | 0.24 | 1.55 |
22 | 59 | 23 | 18 | 0.33 | 5.05 | 7.5 | 64 | 0.2 | 1.8 |
23 | 54 | 35 | 11 | 1.06 | 4.05 | 7.7 | 72 | 0.29 | 0.8 |
24 | 56 | 32 | 12 | 0.93 | 4.95 | 7.55 | 64 | 0.2 | 1.3 |
25 | 61 | 29 | 10 | 0.82 | 4.7 | 7.9 | 63 | 0.33 | 0.7 |
Average | 69.2 | 19.9 | 10.9 | 2.30 | 4.79 | 7.72 | 64.60 | 0.22 | 1.37 |
SD | 11.21 | 9.82 | 3.01 | 3.12 | 1.14 | 0.19 | 4.46 | 0.06 | 0.62 |
Maximum | 91 | 35 | 18 | 11.3 | 7.8 | 8.1 | 75 | 0.33 | 2.7 |
Minimum | 54 | 1.5 | 6 | 0.29 | 2.6 | 7.45 | 55 | 0.11 | 0.5 |
1968–1994 | 1994–2009 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gully No. | Area (m2) | Ha (m year−1) | Volume (m3 year−1) | Erosion (m3 year−1 ha) | Ha (m year−1) | Volume (m3 year−1) | Erosion (m3 year−1 ha) |
1 | 3632 | 1.21 | 3.05 | 12.2 | 1.76 | 3.49 | 13.96 |
2 | 6805 | 1.3 | 3.96 | 15.84 | 1.43 | 6.09 | 24.36 |
3 | 1641 | 1.72 | 4.24 | 16.96 | 0.72 | 3.74 | 14.96 |
4 | 2594 | 1.45 | 7.55 | 30.2 | 1.18 | 8.55 | 34.2 |
5 | 5955 | 2.5 | 2.99 | 11.96 | 1.84 | 3.87 | 15.48 |
6 | 4472 | 2.6 | 7.59 | 30.36 | 2.49 | 10.47 | 41.88 |
7 | 8786 | 2.84 | 7.99 | 31.96 | 2.57 | 10.08 | 40.32 |
8 | 2706 | 1.45 | 4.42 | 17.68 | 1.77 | 6.92 | 27.68 |
9 | 1093 | 0.33 | 1.93 | 7.72 | 0.15 | 6.41 | 25.64 |
10 | 2878 | 1.67 | 1.04 | 4.16 | 1.72 | 3.17 | 12.68 |
11 | 7315 | 1.58 | 2.23 | 8.92 | 1.71 | 3.02 | 12.08 |
12 | 1627 | 0.79 | 3 | 12 | 0.39 | 6.38 | 25.52 |
13 | 6318 | 0.65 | 4.47 | 17.88 | 0.32 | 6.07 | 24.28 |
14 | 2370 | 0.69 | 2.01 | 8.04 | 1.12 | 7.46 | 29.84 |
15 | 5019 | 2.15 | 1.75 | 7 | 1.95 | 4.50 | 18 |
16 | 2884 | 0.22 | 3.35 | 13.4 | 0.66 | 5.01 | 20.04 |
17 | 1593 | 0.71 | 3.65 | 14.6 | 1.67 | 6.43 | 25.72 |
18 | 2560 | 1.38 | 2.99 | 11.96 | 1.6 | 6.49 | 25.96 |
19 | 3500 | 1.36 | 4.47 | 17.88 | 1.06 | 7.62 | 30.48 |
20 | 2207 | 1.4 | 5.74 | 22.96 | 0.44 | 9.87 | 39.48 |
21 | 2586 | 0.85 | 3.37 | 13.48 | 0.56 | 9.12 | 36.48 |
22 | 5428 | 1.31 | 5.59 | 22.36 | 1.54 | 5.83 | 23.32 |
23 | 5951 | 1.23 | 9.72 | 38.88 | 0.22 | 9.08 | 36.32 |
24 | 3799 | 1.33 | 2.10 | 8.4 | 1.36 | 12.27 | 49.08 |
25 | 4880 | 1.29 | 4.12 | 16.48 | 0.7 | 5.77 | 23.08 |
Average | 3943 | 1.36 | 4.13 | 16.53 | 1.23 | 6.7 | 26.83 |
SD | 2048 | 0.64 | 2.13 | 8.52 | 0.67 | 2.42 | 9.68 |
Maximum | 8786 | 2.84 | 9.72 | 38.88 | 2.57 | 12.27 | 49.08 |
Minimum | 1093 | 0.22 | 1.04 | 4.16 | 0.15 | 3.02 | 12.08 |
Gully No. | SCS I | Thompson | SCS II | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1968–1994 | 1994–2009 | 1968–1994 | 1994–2009 | 1994–2009 | |
1 | 0.49 | 0.26 | 0.55 | 1.23 | 1.13 |
2 | 0.69 | 0.42 | 0.72 | 2.2 | 1.6 |
3 | 0.3 | 0.16 | 0.25 | 0.68 | 1.46 |
4 | 0.4 | 0.21 | 0.4 | 0.81 | 1.25 |
5 | 0.61 | 0.37 | 0.74 | 1.62 | 3.18 |
6 | 0.56 | 0.28 | 0.69 | 1.01 | 2.11 |
7 | 0.59 | 0.33 | 0.54 | 0.73 | 2.86 |
8 | 0.4 | 0.17 | 0.4 | 0.49 | 0.92 |
9 | 0.35 | 0.16 | 0.28 | 0.41 | 0.23 |
10 | 0.46 | 0.2 | 0.38 | 0.56 | 1.09 |
11 | 0.76 | 0.46 | 0.51 | 0.99 | 1.9 |
12 | 0.32 | 0.22 | 0.17 | 0.84 | 1.35 |
13 | 0.66 | 0.49 | 0.93 | 1.88 | 2.9 |
14 | 0.45 | 0.26 | 0.41 | 0.85 | 0.74 |
15 | 0.42 | 0.17 | 0.32 | 0.59 | 1.24 |
16 | 0.28 | 0.17 | 0.31 | 0.83 | 0.26 |
17 | 0.35 | 0.18 | 0.38 | 0.37 | 0.59 |
18 | 0.45 | 0.16 | 0.65 | 1.05 | 0.71 |
19 | 0.42 | 0.2 | 0.52 | 0.89 | 0.96 |
20 | 0.3 | 0.12 | 0.19 | 0.09 | 0.78 |
21 | 0.4 | 0.25 | 0.52 | 1.06 | 1.11 |
22 | 0.61 | 0.41 | 0.96 | 1.67 | 2.17 |
23 | 0.62 | 0.43 | 0.61 | 1.65 | 2.62 |
24 | 0.49 | 0.31 | 0.54 | 1.23 | 1.79 |
25 | 0.55 | 0.33 | 0.54 | 1.19 | 1.48 |
Average | 0.47 | 0.26 | 0.5 | 0.99 | 1.45 |
SD | 0.13 | 0.10 | 0.2 | 0.49 | 0.79 |
Maximum | 0.76 | 0.49 | 0.96 | 2.2 | 3.18 |
Minimum | 0.28 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.09 | 0.23 |
Indexes | SCS I | Thompson | SCS II | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1968–1994 | 1994–2009 | 1968–1994 | 1994–2009 | 1994–2009 | |
R2 | 0.14 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.19 |
MES | 0.25 | 0.55 | 0.28 | 0.19 | 0.16 |
Model | B | t | Sig | R2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Constant | 1.081 | 8.122 | 0.000 | 0.26 |
SAR | 0.857 | 2.864 | 0.009 | ||
2 | Constant | 0.584 | 2.460 | 0.022 | 0.41 |
SAR | 0.997 | 3.590 | 0.002 | ||
At | 0.775 | 2.430 | 0.024 | ||
3 | Constant | 0.267 | 1.448 | 0.162 | 0.71 |
SAR | 0.637 | 2.971 | 0.007 | ||
At | 3.509 | 5.538 | 0.000 | ||
A1 | 3.556 | 4.630 | 0.000 | ||
4 | Constant | 0.050 | .294 | 0.772 | 0.8 |
SAR | 0.673 | 3.710 | 0.001 | ||
At | 3.705 | 6.882 | 0.000 | ||
A1 | 4.120 | 6.118 | 0.000 | ||
L | 0.006 | 3.082 | 0.006 | ||
5 | Constant | −0.463 | −1.862 | 0.078 | 0.85 |
SAR | 0.577 | 3.516 | 0.002 | ||
Rp | 40.160 | 8.220 | 0.000 | ||
A1 | 40.620 | 7.401 | 0.000 | ||
L | 0.006 | 3.753 | 0.001 | ||
H | 0.294 | 2.593 | 0.018 |
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Nazari Samani, A.; Tavakoli Rad, F.; Azarakhshi, M.; Reza Rahdari, M.; Rodrigo-Comino, J. Assessment of the Sustainability of the Territories Affected by Gully Head Advancements through Aerial Photography and Modeling Estimations: A Case Study on Samal Watershed, Iran. Sustainability 2018, 10, 2909. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082909
Nazari Samani A, Tavakoli Rad F, Azarakhshi M, Reza Rahdari M, Rodrigo-Comino J. Assessment of the Sustainability of the Territories Affected by Gully Head Advancements through Aerial Photography and Modeling Estimations: A Case Study on Samal Watershed, Iran. Sustainability. 2018; 10(8):2909. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082909
Chicago/Turabian StyleNazari Samani, Aliakbar, Fatemeh Tavakoli Rad, Maryam Azarakhshi, Mohammad Reza Rahdari, and Jesús Rodrigo-Comino. 2018. "Assessment of the Sustainability of the Territories Affected by Gully Head Advancements through Aerial Photography and Modeling Estimations: A Case Study on Samal Watershed, Iran" Sustainability 10, no. 8: 2909. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082909