Using Local Agroecological Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation: A Study of Tree-Based Options in Northern Morocco
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Data Collection and Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Farming Systems
3.2. Current Tree-Cover and Agroforestry Practices
3.3. Niches for Farm-Trees and Perceptions about Tree-Based Diversification
3.4. Perceived Barriers to Tree-Based Diversification
3.4.1. Water Scarcity
3.4.2. Low Profitability
3.4.3. Uncontrolled Grazing
3.5. Entry-Points for Tree-Based Adaptation, and Identified Extension and Innovation Priorities
4. Discussion
4.1. Farming System Characterisation with Local Agroecological Knowledge
4.2. Overcoming Adoption Barriers through Co-Learning and Cooperation
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Characteristics | Farming Systems | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Irrigated Systems | Lowland Systems | Lower Slope Systems | Mountain Systems | Pastoral Systems | |
Farm size | Up to 20 ha | ≤9 ha | Variable | Variable | Very small land holdings |
Bio-physical conditions | Variable terrain (flat to steep) Erosion of river/stream banks High soil fertility Traditional flood irrigation (seguas, motorised pumps) | Flat terrain Low erosion High soil fertility (black soils) Rain fed with supplementary irrigation on minor areas | Moderate slopes Moderate to high erosion Moderate to low fertility (clay soils) Rain fed | Moderate to steep slopes Moderate to high erosion Moderate to low fertility (clay soils) Rain fed | Rangelands span lowland, lower slope and mountain systems, state forests and land administered by the Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs |
Agricultural systems | Predominantly commercial Cash crops: Fruit from irrigated orchards Vegetables and aromatic herbs Irrigated forages (e.g., maize) Domestic consumption: Fruit and vegetables | Predominantly commercial Cash crops: Wheat, white onions, fava beans, chickpeas, lentils Domestic consumption: Olives (table and oil) and fruit Legumes, cereals, vegetables Green forages for livestock | Commercial and subsistence Cash crops: Olives (oil) Surplus production of wheat, fava bean, chickpeas Domestic consumption: Olives and fruit Legumes, cereals, vegetables Oat and barley for livestock | Commercial and subsistence Cash crops: Olives (oil), carob seed pots, figs, some almonds Domestic consumption: Olives and fruit Legumes, cereals, vegetables Oat and barley for livestock | Commercial Income source: Rearing of small ruminants and cattle for meat production |
Level of intensification | Intensive cultivation of fruit trees Great reliance on manual labour | Intensified cereal production; seeds and agro-chemical inputs Tractors and harvesters for cropland preparation, sowing and harvest of cereals | Annual cropping systems (foothills) resemble those of lowland farmers, partly machine accessible Extensive management of mature olive stands | Extensive cultivation of tree stands and annual crops Great reliance on manual labour | Low; open rangeland grazing |
Key threats | New tree pests and diseases Stream bank erosion Potential loss and conflict over water resources Declining water resources and deterioration of irrigation infrastructure | Drought events and changing precipitation patterns Increasing pest and disease pressure Increasing costs for agro-chemical inputs Adverse market trends (cereals) Debt with agricultural bank | Drought events and changing precipitation patterns Olive pests and diseases Adverse market trends (olives) Damage to trees and crops from browsing livestock Loss of access to village water resources | Drought events and changing precipitation patterns Damage to trees and crops from browsing livestock Increasing need for off-farm employment Tree pests and diseases | Livestock diseases Increasing costs for supplementary forages (winter) Conflict with tree-owners and state forest staff over access to rangelands |
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Typology According to Farmers’ Local Agroecological Knowledge | Tree Cover and Agroforestry Practices by Farming Systems | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Irrigated Systems | Lowland Systems | Lower Slope Systems | Mountain Systems | |
Very common cultivated species; well suited to rain fed farming (Olea europea, Ceratonia siliqua, Ficus carica, Prunus dulcis) | Rare; single dispersed trees in fruit orchards | O. europea in widely spaced, immature orchards (10 × 10 m) on cropland; O. europea in boundary plantings along field boundaries; few or single C. siliqua, F. carica or P. dulcis on cropland and near houses | O. europea in mature orchards; few or single C. siliqua dispersed in O. europea stands; few or single F. carica dispersed on cropland; O. europea, F. carica and P. dulcis in recently established mixed orchards on former cropland in the foothills | O. europea in mature orchards; some recently established O. europea orchards and stands rejuvenated through pollarding; smaller C. siliqua and F. carica stands of various ages and single trees in home gardens; small orchards of P. dulcis and single trees in home gardens |
Other cultivated species; well suited to rain fed farming (Acacia cf. horrida, Agave sp., Opuntica ficus-indica) | n/a | Dispersed or in small clumps near houses | Living fences in settlements and along field boundaries | Living fences in settlements and along field boundaries |
Common cultivated fruit tree species; to some extend suited to rain fed farming (Prunus armeniaca, Punica granatum) | Single trees in fruit tree orchards | Single trees in mixed clumps of fruit trees or in home gardens near houses | Single trees in mixed clumps of fruit trees or in home gardens near houses; immature P. granatum in recently established mixed orchards on former cropland in the foothills | Single trees in mixed clumps of fruit trees or in home gardens near houses |
Common cultivated fruit tree species; unsuited to rain fed farming (Citrus spp., Cydonia oblonga, Morus alba, Prunus persica, Prunus spp., Pyrus spp., Vitis spp.) | Dominant; mostly in recently established commercial fruit tree orchards; single dispersed mature trees, established by previous farmer generations | Individual or clumps of up to ten trees on cropland or in home gardens near houses | Individual or clumps of up to ten trees on cropland or in home gardens near houses; Vitis spp. on extensively managed or semi-abandoned farmland near ridges | Individual or clumps of up to ten trees on cropland or in home gardens near houses; remnant and declining Vitis spp. established by previous farmer generations in orchards or on cropland |
Rare cultivated fruit tree species; unsuited to rain fed farming (Eriobotrya japonica, Malus domestica, Ziziphus jujuba) | Single E. japonica and Z. jujuba; few M. domestica in decline | Single trees on cropland | n/a | n/a |
Wild or remnant species on farms (Arbutus unedo, Celtis australis, Fraxinus cf. angustifolia, Tamarix cf. aphylla, Chamaerops humilis, Crateagus sp., Cupressus sempervirens, Eucalyptus spp., Nerium oleander, Olea europea var. Oleaster, Pinus spp., Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia lentiscus, Populus sp., Quercus cf. rotundifolia, Ricinus communis, Ziziphus lotus) | Rare; alongside stream banks | Very rare; dispersed alongside roads or field boundaries; few remnant trees near houses, established during post-colonial French settlement | Commonly retained in hedgerows along field boundaries; few remnant trees near houses, established during post-colonial French settlement; wild shrubs and trees on extensively managed or semi-abandoned farmland near ridges | Commonly retained in hedgerows along field boundaries; alongside roads and stream banks on cropland |
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Kmoch, L.; Pagella, T.; Palm, M.; Sinclair, F. Using Local Agroecological Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation: A Study of Tree-Based Options in Northern Morocco. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3719. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103719
Kmoch L, Pagella T, Palm M, Sinclair F. Using Local Agroecological Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation: A Study of Tree-Based Options in Northern Morocco. Sustainability. 2018; 10(10):3719. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103719
Chicago/Turabian StyleKmoch, Laura, Tim Pagella, Matilda Palm, and Fergus Sinclair. 2018. "Using Local Agroecological Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation: A Study of Tree-Based Options in Northern Morocco" Sustainability 10, no. 10: 3719. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103719