Land-Use/Land-Cover Changes and Their Influence on the Ecosystem in Chengdu City, China during the Period of 1992–2018
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Study Area
2.2. Data Collection and LULC Dataset
2.3. LULC Changes
2.4. Assignment of Ecosystem Services Values
2.5. Calculation of ESV
2.6. Elasticity for the Response of ESV to LULC Changes
3. Results
3.1. LULC Patterns in Chengdu
3.1.1. LULC of Chengdu from 1992–2018
3.1.2. Spatial Patterns of LULC Changes during the Period of 1992–2018
3.2. Assessing Changes in Ecosystem Services in Chengdu
3.2.1. Changes in Total ESV
3.2.2. Spatial Patterns of Individual Ecosystem Service Function Changes
3.2.3. ESV Change in Different Ecosystem Types from 1992 to 2018
3.2.4. Elasticity of Ecosystem Service Value Change in Response to LULC Changes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- MEA. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- De Groot, R.S.; Wilson, M.A.; Boumans, R.M.J. A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystems functions, goods and services. Ecol. Econ. 2002, 41, 393–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faber, J.H.; Van, W.J. Elaborations on the use of the ecosystem services concept for application in ecological risk assessment for soils. Sci. Total. Environ. 2012, 415, 3–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Costanza, R.; D’Arge, R.; Groot, R.D.; Farber, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; Limburg, K.; Naeem, S.; O’Neill, R.V.; Paruelo, J. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 1997, 387, 253–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Barton, D.N. Classifying and valuing ecosystem services for urban planning. Ecol. Econ. 2013, 86, 235–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MEA. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Schägner, J.P.; Brander, L.; Maes, J.; Hartje, V. Mapping ecosystem services’ values: Current practice and future prospects. Ecosyst. Servi. 2013, 4, 33–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- TEEB. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Ecological and Economic Foundations; Earthscan: London, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- De Groot, R.S.; Alkemade, R.; Braat, L.; Hein, L.; Willemen, L. Challenges in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making. Ecol. Complex. 2010, 7, 260–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arowolo, A.O.; Deng, X.; Olatunji, O.A.; Obayelu, A.E. Assessing changes in the value of ecosystem services in response to land-use/land-cover dynamics in Nigeria. Sci. Total. Environ. 2018, 636, 597–609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, B.; Chen, G.Q. Modified ecological footprint accounting and analysis based on embodied exergy—A case study of the Chinese society 1981–2001. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 61, 355–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, H.; Seely, B.; Wang, G.; Innes, J.; Zheng, D.; Chen, P.; Wang, T.; Li, Q. Evaluating management tradeoffs between economic fiber production and other ecosystem services in a Chinese-fir dominated forest plantation in Fujian Province. Sci. Total. Environ. 2016, 557, 80–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Troy, A.; Wilson, M.A. Mapping ecosystem services: Practical challenges and opportunities in linking GIS and value transfer. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 60, 435–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barral, M.P.; Oscar, M.N. Land-use planning based on ecosystem service assessment: A case study in the Southeast Pampas of Argentina. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 2012, 154, 34–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bateman, I.J.; Harwood, A.R.; Mace, G.M.; Watson, R.T.; Abson, D.J.; Andrews, B.; Binner, A.; Crowe, A.; Day, B.H.; Dugdale, S. Bringing ecosystem services into economic decision-making: Land use in the United Kingdom. Science 2013, 341, 45–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Frélichová, J.; Vačkář, D.; Pártl, A.; Loučková, B.; Harmáčková, Z.V.; Lorencová, E. Integrated assessment of ecosystem services in the Czech Republic. Ecosyst. Serv. 2014, 8, 110–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, Z.; Xiao, X.; Gan, Y.; Zheng, Y. Ecosystem functions, services and their values—A case study in Xingshan County of China. Ecol. Econ. 2001, 38, 141–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Konarska, K.M.; Sutton, P.C.; Castellon, M. Evaluating scale dependence of ecosystem service valuation: A comparison of NOAA-AVHRR and Landsat TM datasets. Ecol. Econ. 2002, 41, 491–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, S.; Costanza, R.; Troy, A.; D’Aagostino, J.; Mates, W. Valuing New Jersey’s ecosystem services and natural capital: A spatially explicit benefit transfer approach. Environ. Manage. 2010, 45, 1271–1285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, R.Q.; Dong, M.; Cui, J.Y.; Zhang, L.L.; Cui, Q.G.; He, W.M. Quantification of the impact of land-use changes on ecosystem services: A case study in Pingbian County, China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2007, 128, 503–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Polasky, S.; Nelson, E.; Pennington, D.; Johnson, K.A. The Impact of Land-Use Change on Ecosystem Services, Biodiversity and Returns to Landowners: A Case Study in the State of Minnesota. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2011, 48, 219–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, H.; Liu, W.; Cao, M. Impact of land use and land cover changes on ecosystem services in Menglun, Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2008, 146, 147–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zang, S.; Wu, C.; Liu, H.; Na, X. Impact of urbanization on natural ecosystem service values: A comparative study. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2011, 179, 575–588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, B.; Kreuter, U.; Li, B.; Ma, Z.; Chen, J.; Nakagoshi, N. An ecosystem service value assessment of land-use change on Chongming Island, China. Land Use Policy 2004, 21, 139–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tong, C.; Feagin, R.A.; Lu, J.; Zhang, X.; Zhu, X.; Wang, W.; He, W. Ecosystem service values and restoration in the urban Sanyang wetland of Wenzhou, China. Ecol. Eng. 2007, 29, 249–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kreuter, U.P.; Harris, H.G.; Matlock, M.D.; Lacey, R.E. Change in ecosystem service values in the San Antonio area, Texas. Ecol. Econ. 2001, 39, 333–346. [Google Scholar]
- Kubiszewski, I.; Costanza, R.; Dorji, L.; Thoennes, P.; Tshering, K. An initial estimate of the value of ecosystem services in Bhutan. Ecosyst. Serv. 2013, 3, e11–e21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lambin, E.F.; Meyfroidt, P. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 3465–3472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gibbs, H.K.; Ruesch, A.S.; Achard, F.; Clayton, M.K.; Holmgren, P.; Ramankutty, N.; Foley, J.A. Tropical forests were the primary sources of new agricultural land in the 1980s and 1990s. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 16732–16737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Song, W.; Deng, X. Land-use/land-cover change and ecosystem service provision in China. Sci. Total. Environ. 2017, 576, 705–719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Costanza, R.; de Groot, R.; Sutton, P.; Van der Ploeg, S.; Anderson, S.J.; Kubiszewski, I.; Farber, S.; Turner, R.K. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2014, 26, 152–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Su, S.; Li, D.; Hu, Y.; Xiao, R.; Zhang, Y. Spatially non-stationary response of ecosystem service value changes to urbanization in Shanghai, China. Ecologi Indic. 2014, 45, 332–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kindu, M.; Schneider, T.; Teketay, D.; Knoke, T. Changes of ecosystem service values in response to land use/land cover dynamics in Munessa-Shashemene landscape of the Ethiopian highlands. Sci. Total. Environ. 2016, 547, 137–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xie, G.; Lu, C.X.; Leng, Y.F.; Zheng, D.U.; Li, S.C. Ecological assets valuation of the Tibetan Plateau. J. Nat. Resour. 2003, 18, 189–196. [Google Scholar]
- Lu, X.; Gan, Q.; Shi, L. Research on the Chengdu Electronic Supervision System for Food Quality Safety Based on PDA and Mobile GIS Technology; Springer-Verlag: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2012; pp. 391–397. [Google Scholar]
- Peng, W.F.; Zhou, J.M.; Fan, S.Y.; Yang, C.J. Effects of the Land Use Change on Ecosystem Service Value in Chengdu, Western China from 1978 to 2010. J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens. 2016, 44, 197–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qin, B. City profile: Chengdu. Cities 2015, 43, 18–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Zhan, J.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, F.; Zhang, M. Response of ecosystem services to land use and cover change: A case study in Chengdu City. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 2018, 132, 291–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, W.F.; Zhou, J.M.; Xinliang, X.U.; Luo, H.L.; Zhao, J.F.; Yang, C.J. Effect of land use changes on carbon emission and its spatial patterns in Chengdu Plain and its surrounding area, western China, from 1990 to 2010. Ecol. Sci. 2017, 36, 105–114. [Google Scholar]
- Ma, W.L.; Ren, P.; Zeng, Y.Q. The Characteristics for the Spatial-Temporal Evolution of Water Conservation Value in Farmland Ecosystem in Chengdu Plain Economic Zone. China Land Sci. 2015, 10, 85–94. [Google Scholar]
- Teferi, E.; Uhlenbrook, S.; Bewket, W.; Wenninger, J.; Simane, B. The use of remote sensing to quantify wetland loss in the Choke Mountain range, Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss. 2010, 14, 2415–2428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gebrehiwot, S.G.; Bewket, W.; Gärdenäs, A.I.; Bishop, K. Forest cover change over four decades in the Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia: comparison of three watersheds. Reg. Environ. Chang. 2014, 14, 253–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gashaw, T.; Tulu, T.; Argaw, M.; Worqlul, A.W. Evaluation and prediction of land use/land cover changes in the Andassa watershed, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Environ. Syst. Res. 2017, 6, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, C.; Wu, C.C.; Tsogt, K.; Ouyang, Y.C.; Chang, C.I. Effects of atmospheric correction and pansharpening on LULC classification accuracy using WorldView-2 imagery. Inf. Process. Agric. 2015, 2, 25–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tehrany, M.S.; Pradhan, B.; Jebuv, M.N. A comparative assessment between object and pixel-based classification approaches for land use/land cover mapping using SPOT 5 imagery. Geocarto Int. 2014, 29, 351–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Sharif, A.A.A.; Pradhan, B. Monitoring and predicting land use change in Tripoli Metropolitan City using an integrated Markov chain and cellular automata models in GIS. Arab. J. Geosci. 2014, 7, 4291–4301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.; Zhang, B.; Zhang, S.; Li, X.; Liu, D.; Song, K.; Li, J.; Li, F.; Duan, H. Changes of land use and of ecosystem service values in Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2006, 112, 69–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ahmad, A.; Quegan, S. Analysis of maximum likelihood classification on multispectral data. Appl. Math. Sci. 2012, 6, 6425–6436. [Google Scholar]
- Tilahun, A. Accuracy Assessment of Land Use Land Cover Classification using Google Earth. J. Environ. Prot. 2015, 4, 193–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, W.; Wang, G.; Zhou, J.; Zhao, J.; Yang, C. Studies on the temporal and spatial variations of urban expansion in Chengdu, western China, from 1978 to 2010. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2015, 17, 141–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hao, F.; Lai, X.; Ouyang, W.; Xu, Y.; Wei, X.; Song, K. Effects of land use changes on the ecosystem service values of a reclamation farm in northeast China. Environ. Manage. 2012, 50, 888–899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, X.; Bao, Y. Study on the methods of land use dynamic change research. Prog. Geogr. 1999, 18, 81–87. [Google Scholar]
- Brown, G. The relationship between social values for ecosystem services and global land cover: An empirical analysis. Ecosyst. Serv. 2013, 5, 58–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xie, G.D.; Zhen, L.; Lu, C.X.; Xiao, Y.; Chen, C. Expert Knowledge Based Valuation Method of Ecosystem Services in China. J. Nat. Res. 2008, 23, 911–919. [Google Scholar]
- Li, F.; Zhang, S.; Yang, J.; Bu, K.; Wang, Q.; Tang, J.; Chang, L. The effects of population density changes on ecosystem services value: A case study in Western Jilin, China. Ecol. Indic. 2016, 61, 328–337. [Google Scholar]
- Zhao, T.; Ouyang, Z.; Zheng, H.; Wang, X.; Miao, H. Forest ecosystem services and their valuation in China. J. Nat. Res. 2004, 4, 480–491. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, M.L. An improved CASA model based on the grassland comprehensive and Sequential Classification System and its Application to the Grassland NPP in China; Gansu Agricultural University: Gansu, China, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Xie, G.D.; Xiao, Y.; Zhen, L. Study on ecosystem services value of food production in China. Chin. J. Eco-Agric. 2005, 13, 10–13. [Google Scholar]
- Ai, Z.H. Impact of Land-Use Changes on the Ecosystem Service Value in Qianjiang City; Central China Normal University: Wuhan, China, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, Z.; Gao, J.; Gao, Y. The influences of land use changes on the value of ecosystem services in Chaohu Lake Basin, China. Environ. Earth Sci. 2015, 74, 385–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.L.; Wang, Z.M.; Zhang, B.; Lu, C.; Ren, C. Impact of land use/land cover changes on ecosystem services in the Nenjiang River Basin, Northeast China. Ecol. Process. 2015, 4, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.; Gao, J.; Wang, J.; Qiu, J. Value assessment of ecosystem services in nature reserves in Ningxia, China: Aresponse to ecological restoration. Plos ONE 2014, 9, e89174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, Y.; Zhao, L.; Liu, J.; Liu, Y.; Li, C. The Impact of Land Cover Change on Ecosystem Service Values in Urban Agglomerations along the Coast of the Bohai Rim, China. Sustainability 2015, 7, 10365–10387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tolessa, T.; Senbeta, F.; Kidane, M. The impact of land use/land cover change on ecosystem services in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Ecosyst. Serv. 2017, 23, 47–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharma, R.; Nehren, U.; Rahman, S.A.; Meyer, M.; Rimal, B.; Seta, G.A.; Baral, H. Modeling Land Use and Land Cover Changes and Their Effects on Biodiversity in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Land 2018, 7, 57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noszczyk, T.; Rutkowska, A.; Hernik, J. Determining Changes in Land Use Structure in Małopolska Using Statistical Methods. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2017, 26, 211–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Frélichová, J.; Fanta, J. Ecosystem service availability in view of long-term land-use changes: A regional case study in the Czech Republic. Ecosyst. Health Sustain. 2016, 1, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cegielska, K.; Noszczyk, T.; Kukulska, A.; Szylar, M.; Hernik, J.; Dixon-Gough, R.; Jombach, S.; Valánszki, I.; Kovács, K.F. Land use and land cover changes in post-socialist countries: Some observations from Hungary and Poland. Land Use Policy 2018, 78, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cabral, P.; Feger, C.; Levrel, H.; Chambolle, M.; Basque, D. Assessing the impact of land-cover changes on ecosystem services: A first step toward integrative planning in Bordeaux, France. Ecosyst. Serv. 2016, 22, 318–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muchová, Z.; Tárníková, M. Land cover change and its influence on the assessment of the ecological stability. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res. 2018, 16, 2169–2182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baumann, M.; Kuemmerle, T.; Elbakidze, M.; Ozdogan, M.; Radeloff, V.C.; Keuler, N.S.; Prishchepov, A.V.; Kruhlov, I.; Hostert, P. Patterns and drivers of post-socialist farmland abandonment in Western Ukraine. Land Use Policy 2011, 28, 552–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wong, C.P.; Jiang, B.; Kinzig, A.P.; Lee, K.N.; Ouyang, Z. Linking ecosystem characteristics to final ecosystem services for public policy. Ecol. Lett. 2015, 18, 108–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Richardson, L.; Loomis, J.; Kroeger, T.; Casey, F. The role of benefit transfer in ecosystem service valuation. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 115, 51–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aschonitis, V.G.; Gaglio, M.; Castaldelli, G.; Fano, E.A. Criticism on elasticity-sensitivity coefficient for assessing the robustness and sensitivity of ecosystem services values. Ecosyst. Serv. 2016, 20, 66–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Ecosystem Services | Sub-types | Each LULC Type Ecosystem Service Value Coefficients (US$/hm2/year) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Farmland | Forest Land | Grassland | Water Area | Construction Land | Unused Land | ||
Provisioning services | Food production | 78.94 | 27.40 | 30.42 | 30.99 | 0 | 1.17 |
Raw material | 30.79 | 247.45 | 25.47 | 20.47 | 0 | 2.34 | |
Regulation services | Gas regulation | 56.84 | 358.72 | 106.13 | 29.82 | 0 | 3.51 |
Climate regulation | 76.58 | 337.96 | 110.38 | 120.46 | 0 | 7.60 | |
Hydrological regulation | 60.79 | 339.62 | 107.55 | 1097.61 | 0 | 4.09 | |
Waste treatment | 109.73 | 142.82 | 93.40 | 868.38 | 0 | 15.20 | |
Supporting services | Soil conservation | 116.05 | 333.81 | 158.49 | 23.98 | 0 | 9.94 |
Biodiversity protection | 80.52 | 374.50 | 132.32 | 200.57 | 0 | 23.39 | |
Cultural services | Recreation and culture | 13.42 | 172.72 | 61.56 | 259.64 | 0 | 14.03 |
Total | 623.65 | 2334.99 | 825.73 | 2651.91 | 0 | 81.28 | |
Costanza et al. in 1997 [4] | 126 | 1338 | 321 | 11727 | 0 | 0 | |
Costanza et al. in 2014 [31] | 5567 | 3800 | 4166 | 12512 | 6661 | 0 |
Land-Use Type | Percentage of Land-Use Type (%) | Land-Use Dynamic Index K (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1992 | 2001 | 2009 | 2018 | 1992–2001 | 2001–2009 | 2009–2018 | 1992–2018 | |
Farmland | 59.56 | 62.00 | 58.71 | 51.86 | 0.46 | −0.66 | −1.30 | −0.50 |
Forest land | 34.40 | 31.74 | 29.74 | 26.47 | −0.86 | −0.79 | −1.22 | −0.89 |
Grassland | 1.85 | 0.83 | 2.05 | 2.50 | −6.11 | 18.37 | 2.44 | 1.36 |
Water area | 1.37 | 1.38 | 1.18 | 1.01 | 0.09 | −1.84 | −1.62 | −1.02 |
Construction land | 2.83 | 4.05 | 8.26 | 18.16 | 4.80 | 13.00 | 13.30 | 20.84 |
Unused land | 0.0010 | 0.0026 | 0.0559 | 0.0037 | 16.43 | 260.71 | −10.38 | 9.89 |
Land use dynamic degree S (%) | 29.20 | 29.12 | 25.70 | 11.37 |
2018 (%) | 1992 (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Farmland | Forest Land | Grassland | Water Area | Construction Land | Unused Land | |
Farmland | 71.06 | 23.62 | 28.10 | 28.94 | 17.52 | 0 |
Forest land | 4.22 | 68.26 | 23.79 | 1.38 | 0.75 | 63.04 |
Grassland | 0.23 | 4.70 | 40.06 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 36.96 |
Water area | 0.38 | 0.24 | 0.60 | 45.59 | 2.14 | 0 |
Construction land | 24.10 | 3.17 | 7.42 | 23.94 | 79.47 | 0 |
Unused land | 0.001 | 0.008 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0 | 0 |
Direction of change | ↓ | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | ↑ | ↑ |
Land Use Type | 1992 | 2001 | 2009 | 2018 | 1992–2001 | 2001–2009 | 2009–2018 | 1992–2018 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ESV | ESV | ESV | ESV | C | CR (%) | C | CR (%) | C | CR (%) | C | CR (%) | |
Farmland | 447.18 | 465.52 | 440.8 | 389.39 | 18.34 | 4.09 | −24.72 | −5.31 | −51.41 | −11.66 | −57.79 | −12.92 |
Forest land | 966.93 | 892.24 | 836.2 | 744.15 | −74.69 | −7.73 | −56.04 | −6.28 | −92.05 | −11.01 | −222.80 | −23.04 |
Grassland | 18.35 | 8.25 | 20.39 | 24.86 | −10.1 | −54.89 | 12.14 | 145.78 | 4.47 | 22.06 | 6.51 | 35.33 |
Water area | 43.78 | 44.15 | 37.66 | 32.16 | 0.37 | 0.91 | −6.49 | −14.71 | −5.5 | −14.59 | −11.62 | −26.48 |
Construction land | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | 0 | - | 0 | - | 0 | - |
Unused land | 0.001 | 0.0025 | 0.0547 | 0.0036 | 0.0015 | 200 | 0.0522 | 1733.3 | −0.051 | −92.73 | 0.0026 | 300 |
Total | 1476.3 | 1410.2 | 1335.1 | 1190.6 | −66.08 | −4.48 | −75.07 | −5.33 | −144.50 | −10.82 | −285.70 | −19.35 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lin, X.; Xu, M.; Cao, C.; P. Singh, R.; Chen, W.; Ju, H. Land-Use/Land-Cover Changes and Their Influence on the Ecosystem in Chengdu City, China during the Period of 1992–2018. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3580. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103580
Lin X, Xu M, Cao C, P. Singh R, Chen W, Ju H. Land-Use/Land-Cover Changes and Their Influence on the Ecosystem in Chengdu City, China during the Period of 1992–2018. Sustainability. 2018; 10(10):3580. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103580
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin, Xiaojuan, Min Xu, Chunxiang Cao, Ramesh P. Singh, Wei Chen, and Hongrun Ju. 2018. "Land-Use/Land-Cover Changes and Their Influence on the Ecosystem in Chengdu City, China during the Period of 1992–2018" Sustainability 10, no. 10: 3580. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103580