The Realities of Community Based Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa
Abstract
:1. Summary
2. Historical Background
2.1. Co-Evolution of Man and Wildlife in Sub-Saharan Africa
2.2. Colonialism and Post-Colonial Conservation and Its Impact on Traditional Management Systems
SPECIES | DATE | ESTIMATE |
---|---|---|
African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) | ||
| 1920s | 120 |
| 1900 | < 4,000 |
| 1900 | 300 |
White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum) | 1895 | 20 |
Cape Mountain Zebra ( Equus zebra zebra) | 1922 | 400 |
Bontebok ( Damaliscus dorcas dorcas) | 1927 | 120 |
Black Wildebeest ( Connochaetes gnou) | 1890 | 550 |
WILDLIFE RESOURCE | DATE | SOURCE | QUANTITY EXPORTED | DESTINATION | SOURCE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ivory | 1608–1612 | Mostly West Africa | 23,000 kg/yr | Holland | [47] |
Ivory | 1909–1917 | Sangha Basin, French Equatorial Africa | 2,694–6,625 kg/yr | France/Europe | [48] |
Ivory | 1903–1911 | Tanzania | 28,444 kg/yr representing 1,200–1,500 elephants/yr | Germany/Europe | [49] |
Rhino Horn | 1903–1911 | Tanzania | 5,889 kg/yr representing 2,000–2,300 rhino/yr | Germany/Europe | [49] |
Duiker Skins | 1950 | Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa | 2 million/yr | France/Europe | [44] |
Dik-dik Skins (Madoqua sp. & Rhynchotragus sp.) | Mid-20th Century | Somaliland | 350,000/yr | Europe | [50] |
2.3. The Coming of Game Laws, Parks and Reserves
2.4. Parks and Protected Areas in the 20th & 21st Century
- The forced removal of 500 people from the Gombe Stream Chimpanzee Sanctuary, just north of Kigoma on the shores of Lake Tanganyika.
- The Mbulu Game Reserve, Tanganyika, containing 10,000 people, their settlements and 1,000s of acres of grazing land.
- The Katawi and Sabi River Game Reserves, Tanganyika where the removal of people was required.
- The Serengeti Game Reserve, in which the Maasai lost 83% of their former land area.
- The Selous Game Reserve (SGR) from which 40,000 people were moved.
- The Budonga Game Reserve by Lake Albert, Uganda, from which people were eventually removed to protect them from tsetse fly and to encourage the proliferation of wildlife over the 12,950 km2 (5,000 mi2) reserve [43].
- Banned them from using their water boreholes,
- Refused to issue a single permit to hunt on their land,
- Arrested more than 50 Bushmen for hunting to feed their families,
- Banned them from taking their small herds of goats back to the reserve.
3. CBNRM, an Attempt to Mitigate the Past
3.1. Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM)
3.2. Economics of CBNRM, a Major Shortcoming
Country | Annual Value (US$) | Employment (1999) | Annual Community Benefits (US$) | Annual Community Benefits Per Household (US$) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botswana | Gross US$ 12.5–20 million from trophy hunting, | >1,000 | 1,696,272.00 gross in 1999 8.5%–13.6% of gross turnover | Sankuyu Community: Ngamiland (ND) Area 34, 1996-2001: 22-50 households: US$ 1,190–9,577 gross Khwai, Ngamiland Area 18, 2000–2002: 35-50 households: US$ 4,536–6,480 gross Okavango Community Trust: ND 22 & 23, 2000-2004: 300–500 households: US$ 800–1,333 gross |
Namibia | >US$ 42 million gross from trophy & biltong hunting, venison and live sales in 1999 >US$ 4.7–5 million gross from trophy hunting (11%–12% of gross) in 1999 | 2,125 directly employed in hunting industry 900 directly employed in allied industries | Mostly on private farms but increasingly on communal conservancies: Nyae Nyae: average US$ 48,415/year gross | Nyae Nyae Conservancy, 1997–2002: 400 households: US$ 79 gross 1998 to 2002, 196 gross in 2003 Torra Conservancy, 2002: 120 households, US$ 853 grossviii, US$ 363 net for household & community projects: Trophy hunting + Lodge |
South Africa | Gross of US$ 38,395-39 million from overseas trophy hunting in 1999. US$ 140-464 million gross from tourist hunting, taxidermy, live sales, biltong hunting & venison market | 5,000–6,000 jobs from foreign hunting 63,000 jobs On Game Farms | Negligible, 99% hunting on private white owned farms | |
Tanzania | Grosses of from US$ 27–39 million/year | Selous Conservation Program, 1990s to present: 16,500 households: US$ 20.60 Gross, US$ 15.84–16.13 Actual to community Cullman-Hurt Community Wildlife Project, 1990s: US$ 14.50–120 Gross | ||
Zimbabwe | Gross US$ 18.6-22.3 million, pre-2000 (land reform significantly reduced this income after 2000) | - | ≈US$ 1.56 million gross. 90% from hunting, 60% from elephant hunting 7-8.4% of Gross Turnover | CAMPFIRE, Average 1989–1999: ≈95,000 households: US$ 18.60 gross |
Zambia | Gross US$ 12 million in 1999 | 21 hunting companies employing 400 people | US$ 700,000 gross, Gross 5.8% of Gross Turnover | ADMADE Program, 1991: 1,000 households Munyamadzi Corridor only, US$ 17 gross LIRDP, 1990s: 10,000 Households, US$ 22–37 Gross |
ADMADE = Administrative Management Design for Game Management Areas & LIRDP = Luangwa Integrated Resource Development Project. Source: [40]. |
COSTS AND BENEFITS | US$ | % OF NET PROFITS (gross turnover) |
---|---|---|
GROSS TURNOVER | 818,402 | |
Government Portion of Trophy Fee | 138,000 | |
Gun Licenses | 6,000 | |
Dipping Packing and Export Fees | 8,500 | |
Client Hunting Licenses | 22,750 | |
Hunting Block Fees (4 Blocks) | 20,000 | |
Professional Hunters Licenses (5) | 10,000 | |
Work Permits (5) | 2,500 | |
Company License | 2,000 | |
NET INCOME TO GOVERNMENT (UWA) | 209,750 | 39 (25.6% of gross turnover) |
Remaining to Company | 608,652 | |
RECURRING COSTS | ||
PH DAILY RATE US$ 150/HUNTING DAY, 360 DAYS | 54,000 | |
CAR RATE TO PH US$ 70/HUNTING DAY, 300 DAYS | 21,000 | |
PH TRAVEL DAY US$ 40/TRAVEL DAY | 2,800 | |
SALARY 2 NON HUNT PROF, US$ 100/DAY | 40,824 | |
Salary CEO | 20,000 | |
COMPANY RUNNING COSTS (ELEC, FUEL) | 100,000 | |
MARKETING | 20,000 | |
Dipping Packing Fees | 14,500 | |
Subtotal | 273,124 | |
Net To Company | 335,528 | |
COMMUNITY BENEFITS | ||
GENERAL STAFF | 15,000 | |
OFF SEASON ANTI-POACHING (4 MOS) | 15,000 | |
20% Of Total Trophy Fee (Govt. + Company) | 47,942 | |
NET INCOME TO COMMUNITY | 77,942 | 14 (9.5% of gross turnover, 5.9% if salaries discounted) |
NET PROFIT TO COMPANY | 257,586 | 47 (gross profit margin 32%) |
TOTAL NET PROFIT | 545,278 |
“...this industry is an ‘old boys club’ of white men who keep the clients and their networks to themselves for financial gain. The standards and requirements set for one to become a professional hunter, which you need before being registered as an outfitter, or before you can become the director of a hunting academy, are stacked against black individuals”[124]
3.3. CBNRM, Population Pressures & Land Use—Can Wildlife Compete?
- 56% overall decline in wildlife for most species in the last 20 years;
- White-bearded Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus albojubatus), 81% decline, 1977–1997, especially in the Loita plains—the main calving and breeding grounds that have been converted to wheat fields;
- Cape Buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) decline from 15,400 in the 1970s to 3,000 in 1994;
- Eland (Taurotragus oryx pattersonianus) from 5,700 in the 1980s to 1,025 in 1996;
- Kongoni/Bubal Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus cokii) from 4,150 to less than 1,400 over the last 20 years;
- Topi (Damaliscus korrigum) declined from 20,748 in 1988 to 8,900 in 1996;
- Warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) decline by 88% from 1988–1996; and
- 72% decline in giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), common waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) and other antelope from 1988–1996.
3.4. CBNRM, Additional Shortcomings
3.5. Transfrontier Conservation Areas, CBNRM on Steroids Displacing Rural Communities
- The Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (Gaza-Kruger-Gonarezhou Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA).
- The Four Corners (Near Victoria Falls where Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia and Botswana meet).
- ZIMOZA (Zimbabwe-Zambia-Mozambique Transboundary Area).
4. Innovative Attempts to overcome Shortcomings of CBNRM
4.1. “Project Noah”, Training Rural Africans, In Wildlife Management
- Sensitizing rural communities to the ecological and economic importance of their natural systems, and to develop the capacity within these communities to sustainably manage wildlife;
- Maintaining (develop) wildlife as a viable and alternative land use option in Africa outside parks and protected areas;
- Assisting in the development of grass roots democracies whereby rural communities can gradually take over ownership, management and the right to benefit from their wildlife and other natural resources;
- Eventually influencing wildlife utilization policy (bottom up approach);
- Creating a core of scientific expertise where students will become the future community wildlife managers, safari operators, government decision makers, or conservation NGO coordinators;
- Ensuring that the utilization (hunting) of wildlife in Africa remains (becomes) a viable option of income generation, thereby ensuring that future generations of sport hunters can continue to practice their sport.
- Establishing a network whereby graduated Noah students can have access to a decision support system (Housed at the Department of Nature Conservation at Tshwane University Of Technology) whereby technical and scientific support will be rendered to former students, their communities and decision makers;
- Eventually developing long-term ties with the various host countries and regional wildlife training institutions such as Mweka/Pasiansi and Garoua wildlife colleges, respectively in Tanzania and Cameroon.
Botswana |
|
Burkina Faso |
|
Cameroon |
|
Kenya |
|
Namibia |
|
Tanzania |
|
Zambia |
|
Zimbabwe |
|
4.2. Finding African Solutions to African Problems
Chasse Libre with Tikar Hunters, Cameroon
Chasse Libre with Dozo Hunters, Burkina Faso
CAMNARES PILOT ONE HUNTER + CAMERMAN | BURKINA FASO CHASSE LIBRE PROGRAM, 2002 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
COST | Bongo hunt (Euro) | Percent gross turnover | 14 Day buffalo hunt (Euro) | Percent gross turnover |
HUNTING LICENSE | 769 | 185 | ||
TEMPORARY RIFLE IMPORT PERMIT | 451 | 185 | ||
CERTIFICATE D'ORIGINE | 69 | 6 | ||
VETERINARY CERTIFICATE | 46 | ? | ||
BLOCK RENTAL (Government Daily Rate) | 923 | |||
DAILY RATE (Community Fee) | 1,185 | 862 | ||
TROPHY FEE BONGO | 1,539 | - | ||
TROPHY FEE BUFFALO—ASSUME 1 BUF/PERSON/HUNT | - | 692 | ||
TROPHY FEE ROAN | - | 462 | ||
GOVERNMENT ECO-GUARDS | 923 | - | ||
GOVERNMENT FEES CAMERAMAN | 1,539 | |||
BENEFITS TO GOVERNMENT (without/with trophy fee) | 4,720/6,259 | 37/49 | 376 | 7 |
COMMON PROPERTY BENEFIT (2 TROPHIES/HUNT) &/or COMMUNITY FEE | - | 2,016 | ||
TOTAL EMPLOYMENT FOR COMMUNITY (8–14 people/hunt) | 867 | 549 | ||
TOTAL COMMUNITY BENEFITS (without/with trophy fee) | 2,052/3,591 | 16/28 | 2565 | 47 |
CAMNARES FEES | 2,462 | 19 | ||
OTHER COSTS (vehicle, fuel, hotels, food, airfare ticket, tips, etc.) Lower figure occurs if airfare, hotels and trophy shipment excluded to make it is more comparable to Table 4 | 1,910-2,910 | 2,536-4,535 | ||
TOTAL COST OF TRIP (Minus airfare, hotels and trophy shipment) | 12,683 | 5,477 |
4.3. Conservation and CBNRM on Their Own Fail
4.4. A Parting Shot
Fouta Djallon Mountains, Guinea Conakry
“You may think it wrong of me to hunt lion for a living. You get paid every two weeks down in the big city in your air-conditioned office. For one lion skin, I get what I make out of the ground in a year (poor lateritic soils). You can put me in jail but when I get out, I will do it again. I have a wife and children to feed. You have one of two choices if you wish me to stop. You can shoot me now or find me another way of life”[155]
Bwindi “Impenetrable Forest”, Uganda
“At Bwindi the activities of buffalo (now extinct) and elephant (now very few) caused disturbed secondary habitats which gorillas prefer. Secondary vegetation is now common in the forest due to timber harvesting. With better protection the forest is regenerating, and gorilla habitat is likely to decline. The level of plant use established at BINP (Bwindi National Park) is far below the impact needed to maintain secondary habitats at their present extent and causes less vegetation destruction than tourist trails cut daily for gorilla viewing”.
“Your schools, clinics and roads are well and good, but they don't fill empty bellies or pay school fees. We want access to the forest”.[69]
“Under pressure from traditional Western conservationists, who had come to believe that wilderness and human community were incompatible, the Batwa (Pygmies) were forcibly expelled from their homeland”.[62]
Munyamadzi Corridor, Zambia
- The 17 year-old said he didn't know what he was getting into and that he only went along because he had been told to do so;
- The 19 year-old had been poaching with the old man since 1987; and
- The 23 year-old had been poaching with the old man since 1991.
5. Conclusions
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Notes
- iThe maji or magic water reputed to prevent German bullets from killing, came from a shallow well called Kisima Mkwanga by Kingupira in the eastern Selous. The Germans applied a scorched earth policy—burning huts, laying waste and destroying crops. The Maji Maji fighters did the same against villages which did not join them [40].
- iiTsetse fly is the vector of human and bovine sleeping sickness/trypanosomiasis. Although there are trypanotolerant cattle such as the N’Dama in West Africa and the Nguni in Southern Africa, over much of Africa tsetse fly areas are dominated by wildlife over livestock.
- iiiTraditional Arab sailing vessel common off the East Africa coast.
- ivUse of the name “World Conservation Union”, in conjunction with IUCN, began in 1990. From March 2008 this name is no longer commonly used. Available online: http://www.iucn.org/about/ (Accessed July 2009).
- vA term coined by well known and widely travelled Zimbabwean professional hunter, Andy Wilkinson, who has seen this phenomenon occurring all over the wilds of rural Africa.
- vi“Open Access Resources” are those owned by the state, belonging to everyone but the responsibility of no one but the state that resulted from the imposition of centralized management systems with the coming of colonialism. For the most part this carried on after independence. The state tended/s to be incapable of controlling access by its alienated people. Africans began mining wildlife as a short-term resource in favour of long-term investments in other economic sectors over which they had control, such as farming and livestock. This is as opposed to traditional “Common Property Resources”, belonging to and managed by the community as opposed to the individual or state.
- viiWashington Consensus policies of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank that markets by themselves will lead to efficient outcomes driven by a profit motive, based on free-market fundamentalism laissez-faire policies. This included conditionalities imposed on developing countries to obtain loans, such as cutbacks in government expenditures, especially in social spending (e.g., education and health); rollback or containment of wages, privatization of state enterprises and deregulation of the economy, elimination or reduction of protection for the domestic market and less restrictions on the operations of foreign investors, successive devaluations of the local currency in the name of achieving export competitiveness, increased interest rates, and elimination of food and agricultural subsidies. The underlying intention was to minimize the role of the state. The folly of SAPs was brought out in the April 2009 G20 and the Summit of the Americas meetings, forcing the IMF to state that it will change how it relates to the developing world.
- viiiNote: Gross indicates total benefits divided among households. Often benefits never reach household, used for common property benefits and/or to run community organization (e.g., conservancy, trust, Section 21 company, association, etc.). Nett is what is left over for payment to the community for both household and/or common property benefits.
- ix(Net Profit To Company/Gross Profit) × 100
- xColumbite-Tantalite.
- xiIncome in local currency is converted to U.S. dollars, and official exchange rate adjusted for cost-of-living differences between the U.S. and country in question, allowing comparison of incomes across countries.
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DeGeorges, P.A.; Reilly, B.K. The Realities of Community Based Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability 2009, 1, 734-788. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1030734
DeGeorges PA, Reilly BK. The Realities of Community Based Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability. 2009; 1(3):734-788. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1030734
Chicago/Turabian StyleDeGeorges, Paul Andre, and Brian Kevin Reilly. 2009. "The Realities of Community Based Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa" Sustainability 1, no. 3: 734-788. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1030734
APA StyleDeGeorges, P. A., & Reilly, B. K. (2009). The Realities of Community Based Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability, 1(3), 734-788. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1030734