Depression in Male Inmates
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods and Material
2.1. Design, Setting, and Period of the Study
2.2. Sample: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
2.3. Data Collection and Procedure
2.4. Research Instrument
2.5. Assessment of Depression
2.6. Ethical Considerations
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sample Description
3.2. Factors Associated with Depression
3.3. Impact of Inmates’ Characteristics on Depression
4. Discussion
5. Strength and Limitations of the Study
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Alemayehu, F.; Ambaw, F.; Gutema, H. Depression and associated factors among prisoners in Bahir Dar Prison, Ethiopia. BMC Psychiatry 2019, 19, 88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Holder, J.; Calaff, I.; Maricque, B.; Tran, V.C. Concentrated incarceration and the public-housing-to-prison pipeline in New York City neighborhoods. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2022, 119, e2123201119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bedaso, A.; Kediro, G.; Yeneabat, T. Factors associated with depression among prisoners in southern Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. BMC Res. Notes 2018, 11, 637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Welu, S.G.; Aregawi, D.H.; Gebreslassie, H.T.; Kidanu, K.G. Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depressive Disorder among Prisoners in Mekelle General Prison Center, Tigray, Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study Design. Depress. Res. Treat. 2021, 2021, 1942674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Togas, C.; Raikou, M.; Niakas, D. An assessment of health-related quality of life in a male prison population in Greece associations with health-related characteristics and characteristics of detention. BioMed Res. Int. 2014, 2014, 274804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, M.M.D.; Barros, C.R.D.S.; Andreoli, S.B. Correlated factors of depression among male and female inmates. Rev. Bras. Epidemiol. 2019, 22, e190051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alevizopoulos, G.; Igoumenou, A. Psychiatric disorders and criminal history in male prisoners in Greece. Int. J. Law Psychiatry 2016, 47, 171–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Favril, L.; Yu, R.; Hawton, K.; Fazel, S. Risk factors for self-harm in prison: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2020, 7, 682–691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sakelliadis, E.I.; Papadodima, S.A.; Sergentanis, T.N.; Giotakos, O.; Spiliopoulou, C.A. Self-injurious behavior among Greek male prisoners: Prevalence and risk factors. Eur. Psychiatry 2010, 25, 151–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Osasona, S.O.; Koleoso, O.N. Prevalence and correlates of depression and anxiety disorder in a sample of inmates in a nigerian prison. Int. J. Psychiatry Med. 2015, 50, 203–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zung, W. Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale and Depression Status Inventory. In Assessment of Depression; Satorious, N., Ban, T., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Fountoulakis, K.; Iacovides, A.; Kleanthous, S. The Greek translation of the symptoms rating scale for depression and anxiety: Preliminary results of the validation study. BMC Psychiatry 2003, 3, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Andreoli, S.B.; Dos Santos, M.M.; Quintana, M.I.; Ribeiro, W.S.; Blay, S.L.; Taborda, J.G.; de Jesus Mari, J. Prevalence of mental disorders among prisoners in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e88836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reta, Y.; Getachew, R.; Bahiru, M.; Kale, B.; Workie, K.; Gebreegziabhere, Y. Depressive symptoms and its associated factors among prisoners in Debre Berhan prison. Ethiopia. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, 0220267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tripathy, S.; Behera, D.; Negi, S.; Tripathy, I.; Behera, M.R. Burden of depression and its predictors among prisoners in a central jail of Odisha, India. Indian J. Psychiatry 2022, 64, 295–300. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Geng, F.; Tu, L.; Zhan, N.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, J. Associations of substance abuse histories and gambling addiction history with post-traumatic stress symptoms and depressive symptoms among Chinese prisoners. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol. 2021, 12, 1906022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elbek, O. COVID-19 Pandemic Threatening Prison Population. Turk. Thorac. J. 2020, 21, 433–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alexandri, A.; Georgiadi, E.; Mattheou, P.; Polikandrioti, M. Factors associated with anxiety and depression in hospitalized patients with first episode of acute myocardial infarction. Arch. Med. Sci. Atheroscler. Dis. 2017, 2, e90–e99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Polikandrioti, M. Quality of life of patients with cardiac pacemaker: Levels, associated characteristics, and the impact of anxiety and depression. Folia Med. 2022, 64, 117–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Polikandrioti, M.; Goudevenos, I.; Michalis, L.; Nikolaou, V.; Dilanas, C.; Olympios, C.; Votteas, V.; Elisaf, M. Validation and reliability analysis of the questionnaire “Needs of hospitalized patients with coronary artery disease”. Health Sci. J. 2011, 5, 137–148. [Google Scholar]
- Polikandrioti, M. Perceived Social Isolation in Heart Failure. J. Innov. Card Rhythm Manag. 2022, 13, 5041–5047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reiter, K.; Ventura, J.; Lovell, D.; Augustine, D.; Barragan, M.; Blair, T.; Chesnut, K.; Dashtgard, P.; Gonzalez, G.; Pifer, N.; et al. Psychological Distress in Solitary Confinement: Symptoms, Severity, and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2018. Am. J. Public Health 2020, 110, S56–S62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lutz, M.; Streb, J.; Dudeck, M. Living Conditions Influence Psychological Distress of Migrants in Long-Term Imprisonment. Front. Psychiatry 2019, 10, 818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Castelpietra, G.; Egidi, L.; Caneva, M.; Gambino, S.; Feresin, T.; Mariotto, A. Suicide and suicides attempts in Italian prison epidemiological findings from the “Triveneto” area, 2010–2016. Int. J. Law Psychiatry 2018, 61, 6–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rivlin, A.; Hawton, K.; Marzano, L.; Fazel, S. Psychosocial characteristics and social networks of suicidal prisoners: Towards a model of suicidal behaviour in detention. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e68944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhong, S.; Senior, M.; Yu, R.; Perry, A.; Hawton, K.; Shaw, J.; Fazel, S. Risk factors for suicide in prisons: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health 2021, 6, 164–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Radeloff, D.; Stoeber, F.; Lempp, T.; Kettner, M.; Bennefeld-Kersten, K. Murderers or thieves at risk? Offence-related suicide rates in adolescent and adult prison populations. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0214936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Reeves, R.; Tamburello, A. Single cells, segregated housing, and suicide in the New Jersey Department of Corrections. J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law 2014, 42, 484–488. [Google Scholar]
- Marzano, L.; Hawton, K.; Rivlin, A.; Smith, E.N.; Piper, M.; Fazel, S. Prevention of Suicidal Behavior in Prisons. Crisis 2016, 37, 323–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bodkin, C.; Pivnick, L.; Bondy, S.J.; Ziegler, C.; Martin, R.E.; Jernigan, C.; Kouyoumdjian, F. History of Childhood Abuse in Populations Incarcerated in Canada: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Am. J. Public Health 2019, 109, e1–e11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, R.; Ross, M.; Taylor, W.; Williams, M.; Carvajal, R.; Peters, R. Prevalence of childhood sexual abuse among incarcerated males in county jail. Child Abuse Negl. 2006, 30, 75–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Apostolopoulos, A.; Michopoulos, I.; Rizos, E.; Manthou, V.; Tzeferakos, G.; Kalemi, G. Prisoners in Greek prisons: Correlation of demographic and psychosocial data with committed crimes. Psychiatriki 2018, 29, 137–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cantürk, M.; Faraji, H.; Tezcan, A.E. The Relationship between Childhood Traumas and Crime in Male Prisoners. Alpha Psychiatry 2021, 22, 56–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Μarotta, P. Childhood Adversities and Substance Misuse Among the Incarcerated: Implications for Treatment and Practice in Correctional Settings. Subst. Use Misuse 2017, 52, 717–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fazel, S.; Hayes, A.J.; Bartellas, K.; Clerici, M.; Trestman, R. Mental health of prisoners: Prevalence, adverse outcomes, and interventions. Lancet Psychiatry 2016, 3, 871–881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kinyanjui, D.W.; Atwoli, L. Substance use among inmates at the Eldoret prison in Western Kenya. BMC Psychiatry 2013, 13, 53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Benavides, A.; Chuchuca, J.; Klaic, D.; Waters, W.; Martín, M.; Romero-Sandoval, N. Depression and psychosis related to the absence of visitors and consumption of drugs in male prisoners in Ecuador: A cross sectional study. BMC Psychiatry 2019, 19, 248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abdu, Z.; Kabeta, T.; Dube, L.; Tessema, W.; Abera, M. Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depression among Prisoners in Jimma Town Prison, South West Ethiopia. Psychiatry J. 2018, 2018, 5762608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
n (%) | |
Age (years) | |
17–20 | 6(5.9%) |
21–30 | 16(15.8%) |
31–40 | 30(29.7%) |
41–50 | 29(28.7%) |
51–60 | 16(15.8%) |
>60 | 4(4.0%) |
Marital Status | |
Single | 20(19.8%) |
Married | 55(54.4%) |
Divorced | 23(22.8%) |
Widowed | 2(2.0%) |
Living Together | 1(1.0%) |
Education Level | |
Primary School | 22(21.8%) |
High School | 58(57.4%) |
University | 15(14.9%) |
No education | 6(5.9%) |
Job | |
Unemployed | 20(19.8%) |
Civil Servant | 5(5.0%) |
Private Employee | 29(28.6%) |
Freelancer | 42(41.6%) |
Pensioner | 5(5.0%) |
Residency | |
Attica | 44(43.6%) |
County capital | 20(19.8%) |
Small Town | 16(15.8%) |
Village | 21(20.8%) |
Nationality | |
Greek | 85(84.1%) |
Albanian | 8(7.9%) |
Bulgarian | 3(3.0%) |
Other | 5(5.0%) |
No of children | |
0 | 61(60.4%) |
1 | 11(10.9%) |
2 | 21(20.8%) |
>2 | 8(7.9%) |
Siblings (yes) | 86(85.1%) |
Served in military (yes) | 66(65.3%) |
n (%) | |
Reason for imprisonment | |
Financial | 2(2.0%) |
Theft–robbery | 17(16.8%) |
Drug trafficking | 7(6.9%) |
Attempted murder | 11(10.9%) |
Injuries | 10(9.9%) |
Homicide | 46(45.6%) |
Rape | 7(6.9%) |
Migrant Trafficking | 1(1.0%) |
Sentence (years) | |
Under trial | 21(20.8%) |
≤10 | 24(23.8%) |
>10 | 17(16.8%) |
Life Sentence | 39(38.6%) |
Visited by someone (yes) | 63(62.4%) |
Who visits you? | |
Parents | 31(49.2%) |
Friends | 8(12.7%) |
Relatives | 14(22.2%) |
Children | 3(4.8%) |
Partner | 7(11.1%) |
How do you spend your free time? | |
Reading | 15(14.8%) |
TV | 51(50.5%) |
Painting | 1(1.0%) |
Music | 25(24.8%) |
Physical exercise | 9(8.9%) |
Do you work during prison time (yes) | 40(39.6%) |
Satisfied with your health state? | |
Very | 25(24.8%) |
Enough | 42(41.6%) |
A little | 27(26.7%) |
Not at all | 7(6.9%) |
Have you been in solitary confinement? | |
Yes | 75(74.3%) |
No | 26(25.7%) |
Do you desire isolation from other prisoners? | |
Yes | 41(40.6%) |
No | 53(52.5%) |
Sometimes | 7(6.9%) |
What is your major cause of stress? | |
My health | 21(20.8%) |
Relationships with other prisoners | 11(10.9%) |
Relationships with family Future after prison | 18(17.8%) 51(50.5%) |
n (%) | |
Do you suffer from a chronic disease (yes) | 15(14.9%) |
Do you have a communicable disease (yes) | 12(11.9%) |
What communicable disease do you have? | |
HIV | 3(25.0%) |
Hepatitis | 9(75.0%) |
Do you have a psychiatric history (yes) | 75(74.3%) |
Do you have a history of substance abuse (yes) | 59(58.4%) |
Smoker (yes) | 86(85.1%) |
Consuming alcohol before prison | |
Yes | 36(35.6%) |
No Sometimes | 24(23.8%) 41(40.6%) |
Have you attempted suicide? | |
Yes | 39(38.6%) |
No | 57(56.4%) |
Don’t want to answer | 5(5.0%) |
Have you ever harmed yourself? | |
Yes | 42(41.6%) |
No | 59(58.4%) |
n (%) | |
Have you been physically abused? (yes) | 55(54.5%) |
Who physically abused you? | |
Father | 27(49.1%) |
Mother | 10(18.1%) |
Relative | 6(10.9%) |
Friend | 3(5.5%) |
Unknown | 9(16.4%) |
How many times were you physically abused? | |
Once | 12(21.8%) |
Twice | 3(5.5%) |
More than twice | 40(72.7%) |
Have you mentioned the physical abuse to someone? (yes) | 12(21.8%) |
Have you been sexually abused? (yes) | 13(12.9%) |
Who sexually abused you? | |
Father | 1(7.7%) |
Mother | 1(7.7%) |
Relative | 1(7.7%) |
Friend | 6(46.2%) |
Unknown | 4(30.7%) |
How many times were you sexually abused? | |
Once | 7(53.8%) |
Twice | 1(7.7%) |
More than twice | 5(38.5%) |
Have you mentioned the sexual abuse to someone? (yes) | 4(30.8%) |
Have you been psychologically abused? (yes) | 59(59.0%) |
Who abused you psychologically? | |
Father | 13(22.0%) |
Mother | 12(20.3%) |
Grandfather/Grandmother | 1(1.7%) |
Relative | 12(20.4%) |
Friend | 13(22.0%) |
Unknown | 8(13.6%) |
How many times were you psychologically abused? | |
Once | 8(13.6%) |
Twice | 3(5.1%) |
More than twice | 48(81.4%) |
Have you mentioned the psychological abuse to someone? (yes) | 15(25.4%) |
Mean (SD) | Median (IQR) | Cronbach’s a | |
---|---|---|---|
Depression (Range 20–80) | 45.1(4.1) | 45(42–48) | 0.840 |
Depression Levels | n (%) | ||
Normal (score < 50) | 63(62.4%) | ||
Mildly Depressed (score 50–59) | 22(21.8%) | ||
Moderately Depressed (score 60–69) | 15(14.9%) | ||
Severely Depressed (score ≥ 70) | 1(1.0%) |
Mean (SD) | Median (IQR) | p-Value * | |
---|---|---|---|
Age | 0.537 | ||
<40 | 45.5(3.6) | 45(42.5–48) | |
41–50 | 44.7(5.5) | 44(41–48) | |
>50 | 44.6(3.3) | 44.5(42.5–46.5) | |
Marital status | 0.759 | ||
Single | 45.6(4.1) | 46(43–48) | |
Married | 45.1(3.9) | 45(42–48) | |
Divorced/Widowed | 44.7(4.7) | 46(41–48) | |
Education Level | 0.221 | ||
No education/Primary School | 46.1(3.3) | 46(44–48) | |
High School | 44.7(4.6) | 45(41–48) | |
University | 44.8(3.6) | 44(43–48) | |
Job | 0.392 | ||
Unemployed | 46.0(4.4) | 46(42.5–48) | |
Employee | 44.8(4.1) | 45(42–48) | |
Residency | 0.541 | ||
Attica | 45.7(4.4) | 45.5(42–49) | |
County capital | 44.4(4.0) | 44.5(41.5–46.5) | |
Small Town/Village | 44.8(3.9) | 45(43–48) | |
Nationality | 0.012 | ||
Greek | 44.6(3.8) | 45(42–47) | |
Other | 47.6(4.9) | 48(45–49.5) | |
Children | 0.360 | ||
No | 44.9(4.0) | 45(42–47) | |
Yes | 45.4(4.4) | 46(42.5–48) | |
Siblings | 0.333 | ||
Yes | 45.0(4.3) | 45(42–48) | |
No | 46.0(3.4) | 47(42–48) | |
Served in military | 0.113 | ||
Yes | 44.6(4.1) | 44(42–48) | |
No | 46.1(4.2) | 46(43–49) | |
Reason for imprisonment | 0.660 | ||
Financial/Theft/Robbery | 45.6(3.9) | 46(42–48) | |
Drug trafficking/Migrant trafficking | 46.0(5.0) | 48(41.5–49.5) | |
Attempted murder/Homicide | 44.9(3.8) | 45(42–47) | |
Injuries/Rape | 44.8(5.2) | 44(42–48) | |
Sentence (years) | 0.686 | ||
Under trial | 45.8(4.8) | 45(43–48) | |
≤10 | 44.6(3.5) | 45(41.5–47.5) | |
>10 | 44.3(3.6) | 45(41–48) | |
Life Sentence | 45.4(4.4) | 46(42–49) | |
Visited by someone | 0.520 | ||
Yes | 45.3(3.9) | 46(42–48) | |
No | 44.8(4.6) | 45(43–47) | |
How do you spend your free time? | 0.737 | ||
Reading | 45.7(3.5) | 46(43–48) | |
TV | 44.8(3.9) | 45(42–48) | |
Music | 45.1(4.4) | 45(42–46) | |
Physical exercise | 45.6(6.0) | 49(43–49) | |
What is your major cause of stress? | 0.583 | ||
My health | 45.7(4.9) | 44(43–47) | |
Relationships with other prisoners | 46.1(2.8) | 46(43–48) | |
Relationships with family | 45.4(4.8) | 47(42–49) | |
Future after prison | 44.6(3.8) | 45(42–48) | |
Are you satisfied with your health state? | 0.764 | ||
Very | 45.6(5.1) | 46(41–50) | |
Enough | 44.9(3.2) | 45(43–48) | |
A little/Not at all | 45.0(4.5) | 45(42–48) | |
Have you been in solitary confinement? | 0.038 | ||
Yes | 45.6(4.3) | 46(43–48) | |
No | 43.7(3.5) | 43.5(41–46) | |
Do you desire isolation from other prisoners? | 0.301 | ||
Yes/Sometimes | 45.7(4.5) | 45.5(42–48.5) | |
No | 44.5(3.8) | 45(42–47) | |
Do you work during prison? | 0.558 | ||
Yes | 44.7(4.1) | 44.5(42–48) | |
No | 45.4(4.2) | 45(43–48) | |
Do you suffer from a chronic disease? | 0.038 | ||
Yes | 46.9(3.0) | 48(44–48) | |
No | 44.8(4.2) | 45(42–48) | |
Do you have a communicable disease? | 0.992 | ||
Yes | 44.8(3.5) | 46(43–47.5) | |
No | 45.1(4.2) | 45(42–48) | |
Do you have a psychiatric history? | 0.211 | ||
Yes | 44.9(4.2) | 45(42–48) | |
No | 45.8(4.0) | 46(44–49) | |
Do you have a history of substance abuse? | 0.838 | ||
Yes | 45.1(3.7) | 45(42–48) | |
No | 45.1(4.8) | 45(42–48) | |
Current Smoker | 0.625 | ||
Yes | 45.0(4.3) | 45(42–48) | |
No | 45.6(2.8) | 46(44–46) | |
Consuming alcohol before prison | 0.435 | ||
Yes/Sometimes | 45.2(4.1) | 45(42–48) | |
No | 44.7(4.4) | 45(41.5–47) | |
Remember an event of anxiety/anger/sadness | 0.111 | ||
Yes | 45.5(4.3) | 45(42–48) | |
No | 43.9(3.4) | 43.5(41–46.5) | |
Have you been physically abused? | 0.529 | ||
Yes | 45.3(4.3) | 45(42–48) | |
No | 44.9(4.0) | 44.5(42–48) | |
Have you been sexually abused? | 0.525 | ||
Yes | 45.8(3.3) | 45(44–48) | |
No | 45.0(4.3) | 45(42–48) | |
Have you been psychologically abused? | 0.204 | ||
Yes | 44.8(4.3) | 44(42–48) | |
No | 45.7(4.0) | 46(43–48) | |
Have you attempted suicide? | 0.857 | ||
Yes | 45.1(5.0) | 45(41–48) | |
No | 45.2(3.7) | 46(43–48) | |
Have you ever harmed yourself? | 0.342 | ||
Yes | 45.6(4.8) | 46(42–49) | |
No | 44.7(3.6) | 44.5(42–48) |
β Coefficient (95% CI) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|
Nationality | ||
Greek | Ref.Cat. | |
Other | 2.77(0.65–4.88) | 0.011 |
Do you suffer from a chronic disease? | ||
No | Ref.Cat. | |
Yes | 2.85(0.61–5.09) | 0.013 |
Have you been in solitary confinement? | ||
No | Ref.Cat. | |
Yes | 1.23(−0.55–3.00) | 0.174 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kastos, D.; Dousis, E.; Zartaloudi, A.; Pavlatou, N.; Kalogianni, A.; Toulia, G.; Tsoulou, V.; Polikandrioti, M. Depression in Male Inmates. Clin. Pract. 2023, 13, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract13010001
Kastos D, Dousis E, Zartaloudi A, Pavlatou N, Kalogianni A, Toulia G, Tsoulou V, Polikandrioti M. Depression in Male Inmates. Clinics and Practice. 2023; 13(1):1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract13010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleKastos, Dimitrios, Evangelos Dousis, Afroditi Zartaloudi, Niki Pavlatou, Antonia Kalogianni, Georgia Toulia, Vasiliki Tsoulou, and Maria Polikandrioti. 2023. "Depression in Male Inmates" Clinics and Practice 13, no. 1: 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract13010001