Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Its Ability to Form Biofilms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Virulence Factors
2.1. Proteases
2.2. Flagella
2.3. Pilis
3. Biofilm on Inert Surfaces
4. Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms
5. Alternative Treatments
6. Antibiotics and Biofilm Formation
7. Public Health Problem
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Year | Nunber of Isolates | Resistance to Antibiotics (%) | Sensitivity to Antibiotics (%) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | 2010–2012 | 426 | Minocycline (0.5%), levofloxacin (3.3%), Tmp/Smx (74.3%) | [59] | |
China | 2005–2014 | 300 | Tmp/Smx (38.7%) | [60] | |
Egypt | 2013–2015 | 32 | Tigecycline (0%), Colistin (15.6%), Levofloxacin (18.7%), Tmp/Smx (37.5%), Ticarcillin Clavulinic Acid (37.5%), Ceftazidime (37.5%), Pipracillin/Tazobactam (47%), Ciprofloxacin (53%), Amikacin (59.4%), Gentamicin (59.4%), Imipenem (100%) | Tigecycline (100%), Colistin (84.4%), Levofloxacin (81.2%), Tmp/Smx (62.5%), Ticarcillin Clavulinic Acid (62.5%), Ceftazidime (62.5%), Pipracillin/Tazobactam (53%), Ciprofloxacin (47%), Amikacin (40.6%), Gentamicin (40.6%), Imipenem (0%) | [53] |
Italy | 2003–2014 | 91 | Ceftazidime (86.6%), Piperacillin/Tazobactam (85.5%), Amikacin (62%) | Minocycline (98.9%), Doxycycline (94.6%), Tmp/Smx (93.4%) | [54] |
Mexico | 2007–2015 | 196 | Meropenem (93.4%), Gentamicin (55.1%), Ceftazidime (52.3%), Cefotaxime (51.5%), Amikacin (42.3%), Cefepime (32.1%), Ciprofloxacin (26%), Tmp/Smx (25%), Chloramphenicol (14.3%), Levofloxacin (2.6%) | [61] | |
Argentina | 2004–2012 | 63 | Ciprofloxacin (23.8%), Levofloxacin (9.5%) Tmp/Smx (6.3%) | Tmp/Smx (93.6%), Levofloxacin (85.7%), Ciprofloxacin (58.7%) | [38] |
Iran | 2015–2016 | 44 | Tmp/Smx (100%), Colistin (100%), Ceftazidime (93.2%) Ciprofloxacin (84.1%) | [55] | |
South Korea | 2006–2015 | 126 bacterium | Quinolone (31.2%), Tmp/Smx (11.9%) | [51] | |
Iran | 2016–2017 | 150 | Imipenem (>94%), Meropenem (>94%), Aztreonam (>94%), Cefepime (52.7%), Ceftazidime (43.3%), Chloramphenicol (43.3%), Colistin (41.3%), Tigecycline (30%), Piperacillin/Tazobactam (25%), Gentamicin (22%), Tmp/Smx (20.7%), Doxycycline (10%), Ticarcillin/Clavulanate (8.7%), Ciprofloxacin (9.3%), Levofloxacin (1.3%), Minocycline (1.3%) | [24] | |
Mexico | 2016–2017 | 30 | Tetraciclina (80%), Tmp/Smx (76.6%), BLEE (23.3%) | All antibiotics (10%) | [43] |
China | 2014 | 93 | Levofloxacin (4.3%), Tmp/Smx (9.7%) | Minocycline (100%) | [62] |
Hungary | 2008–2017 | 817 | Amikacin (72.5%) | Colistin (92.2%), Levofloxacin (90.5%), Tigecycline (90.5%), Tmp/Smx (87.4%) | [56] |
Iran | 2017–2018 | 117 | Chloramphenicol (27.1%), Ceftazidime (27.1%), Minocyclin (16.1%), Tmp/Smx (10.2%) | [63] | |
Iran | 2018–2019 | 85 | Imipenem (100%), Meropenem (100%), Doripenem (100%), Ceftazidime (75.7%), Levofloxacin (4.7%), Tmp/Smx (2.3%) | Minocycline (100%), Tmp/Smx (97.6%), Levofloxacin (95.2%) | [57] |
Iraq | 2016–2020 | 3569 | Ceftazidime (100%), Chloramphenicol (100%), Ciprofloxacin (93%), Cefepime (93%), Evofloxacin (92%), Aztreonam (84%), Ticarcillin-Clavulanic Acid (83%), Minocycline (81%), Imipenem (45%), Tmp/Smx (77%), Gentamicin (70%), Azithromycin (56%), Fosfomycin (34%), Nitrofurantoin (22%) | [64] | |
United States | 2015–2018 | 325 | Tmp/Smx (6.8%), Levofloxacin (6.8%) | Tmp/Smx (87%), Levofloxacin (84%), Ceftazidime (39%) | [58] |
Taiwan | 2014–2016 | 1213 | Levofloxacin (10.6%), Tmp/Smx (10.6%) | [17] |
Country | Year | Nunber of Isolates | Genes de Resistencia a Antibioticos (%) | Integron Class 1,2, and 3 (%) | Other Virulence Genes (%) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | 2010–2012 | 426 | gyrA (100%), parC 100%), smeD 100%), smeE 100%), smeF 100%), smQnr (25.4%) | [59] | ||
China | 2005–2014 | 300 | Qaceδ1-Sul1 (59.7%), Sul2 (25.7%) | Int1 (72.7%) | Dfra1 (1.3%), Dfra5 (1.3%), DfrA12 (11.7%), DfrA17 (8.3%), DfrA27 (2.7%) | [60] |
Egypt | 2013–2015 | 32 | Sul1 (100%), Sul2 (8.3%) | Int 1 (100%) | [53] | |
Iran | 2015–2016 | 44 | Sul1 (36.4%), Sul2 (34.1%) | Int 1 (54.5%) | SmQnr (65.9%) | [55] |
Mexico | 2016–2017 | 30 | Sul1 (100%), Qnr (86.6%), Sul2 (73.3%) | Int 1 (80%), Int 2 (40%), Int 3 (6.6%) | Pilu (96.6%), Flic (90%), Hlyiii (90%), Virb (86.6%), Plcn1 (83.3%), RmlA (83.3%), Papd (80%), Afad (73.3%), Hgbb (66.6%), Gspd (53.3%), Stmpr1 (50%), Enta (23.3%), Mota (23.3%), Tpsb (20%) All Environmental S. maltophilia strains 100% contained the Virb, Flic, Pilu, Plcni, Qnr, and Sul1 genes. | [43] |
China | 2014 | 93 | Stmpr1 (79.6%), Stmpr2 (91.4%), Smf-1 (94.6%), Smlt3773 (52.7%) | [62] | ||
Iran | 2017–2018 | 117 | Sul1 (55%), Sul2 (14.4%) | Int1 (22%) | Aadb (15.2%), Dfra5 (11.8%), | [63] |
Iraq | 2016–2020 | 3569 | Clpa (93%), Htpxa (92%), Tet A (92%), Tet B (89%), Blactx-M1 (84%), Blashv (71%), Sul1 (69%), Dfra (61%), Qnr (55%), Mcr-1 (24%), Blaimp1 (23%), Blaoxa-48 (4%), Acc (3)-Iv (6.1%) | Flic (93%), Stmpr1 (87%), Tpsb (86%), Plcn1 (84%), Virb (73%), Fimh (69%), RmlA (69%), Pilu (62%), Hlyiii (59%), Gspd (57%), Papd (57%), Afad (46%), Hgbd (39%), Mota (31%), Enta (31%) | [64] |
Country | Year | Nunber of Isolates | Biofilm Genes (%) | Biofilms (%) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 2004–2012 | 63 | Strong biofilm (98.4%) | [38] | |
Iran | 2016–2017 | 150 | RmlA (98.0%), SpgM (97.3%), RpfF (70.0%) | Strong Biofilm (46.0%), Moderate Biofilm (21.3%) Weak Biofilm (31.3%), No Biofilm (1.3%) | [24] |
Mexico | 2016–2017 | 30 | RmlA (83.3%) | Strong Biofilm (10%), Moderate Biofilm (46.6%), Weak Biofilm (36.6%), No Biofilm (6.66%) | [43] |
China | 2014 | 93 | RmlA (82.8%), SpgM (92.5%), RpfF (64.5%) | Strong Biofilm | [62] |
Iran | 2018–2019 | 85 | RpfF (89.4%), SpgM (100%), RmlA (84.7%) | Strong Biofilm (34.1%), Moderate Biofilm (37.6%), Weak Biofilm (28.2%) | [57] |
Iraq | 2016–2020 | 3569 | RmlA (69%) | Strong Biofilm (51%), Moderate Biofilm (33%), Weak Biofilm (16%) | [64] |
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García, G.; Girón, J.A.; Yañez, J.A.; Cedillo, M.L. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Its Ability to Form Biofilms. Microbiol. Res. 2023, 14, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres14010001
García G, Girón JA, Yañez JA, Cedillo ML. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Its Ability to Form Biofilms. Microbiology Research. 2023; 14(1):1-20. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres14010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcía, Gina, Jorge A. Girón, Jorge A. Yañez, and María L. Cedillo. 2023. "Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Its Ability to Form Biofilms" Microbiology Research 14, no. 1: 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres14010001