Driving the Future: Strategic Imperatives and Systemic Challenges in Myanmar’s Transition to Electric Mobility

Abstract

This study critically reflects on Myanmar’s readiness and potential to transition from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) amidst escalating climate pressures, energy insecurity, and regional technological shifts. It aims to advocate a systemic and inclusive EV strategy rooted in environmental, economic, and governance imperatives. Drawing on an extensive review of scholarly literature, policy documents, and regional best practices, this study synthesizes evidence to frame a normative argument for accelerating the adoption of EVs in Myanmar. It combines the environmental, infrastructural, and political–economic perspectives to support its position. Myanmar’s EV transition is not merely a technological leap, but a structural transformation intertwined with energy equity, public health, and geopolitical positioning. While significant barriers, such as grid unreliability, policy inconsistency, and socioeconomic disparities, persist, coordinated national efforts and regional cooperation can unlock transformative opportunities. Policy clarity, grid modernization, public engagement, and international partnerships are essential enablers. This study offers a timely and region-specific perspective on the EV debate, highlighting Myanmar’s unique vulnerabilities and latent advantages. It presents a value-based call for inclusive, future-oriented policymaking that aligns Myanmar’s mobility system with its sustainability and development goals.

1. Introduction

The global climate crisis continues to escalate, with rising temperatures posing significant threats to ecosystems, economies, and human health. According to [1], 2023 was the warmest year of over 100,000 years, driven largely by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. The transportation sector is among the chief contributors to this environmental degradation, accounting for approximately 24% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions, with road transport alone responsible for 15% [2]. The widespread use of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles powered by fossil fuels has intensified climate risks while exacerbating energy insecurity and urban air pollution [3].

In Myanmar, the local impact of global warming has already become evident. Over the past five decades, the country has experienced a statistically significant increase in average annual temperature of up to 0.82 °C between 1971 and 2020, with the warming trend most pronounced in central and southern regions [4,5]. This warming has been accompanied by deteriorating air quality. For instance, on 28 January 2025, Yangon was ranked as the fourth most air-polluted major city globally, recording an Air Quality Index (AQI) of 154—classified as “unhealthy”. In 2024, the city’s annual mean PM₂.₅ concentration reached 31 µg/m³, more than three times the WHO safe threshold of 10 µg/m³ [6]. Alarmingly, air pollution contributed to an estimated 101,600 premature deaths in Myanmar in 2021 alone [6].

Table 1. Live ranking of the most polluted major cities.

Rank	Major City, Country/Region	AQI (US)
1	Krakow, Poland	166
2	Kampala, Uganda	156
3	Delhi, India	156
4	Yangon, Myanmar	154
5	Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina	153

Source: [6].

presents a comparative ranking of AQI levels. Projections suggest that average temperatures could increase by an additional 1.1 to 2 °C by 2050, compounding the risks of heat-related illnesses, cardiovascular strain, and the spread of vector-borne diseases such as dengue and malaria [1,7].

The country’s transportation sector is a significant source of carbon emissions, accounting for approximately 16% of total national greenhouse gas emissions in 2023, equivalent to 5.4 million tons of CO₂e [8]. According to official records, Myanmar’s transport emissions have increased at an average annual rate of 7% since 2010, reflecting a consistent and alarming upward trend [9]. This growth trajectory underscores the country’s continued reliance on internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, highlighting the urgent need for low-carbon mobility alternatives. As illustrated in Figure 1, Myanmar’s transport fossil CO₂ emissions have shown a fluctuating but overall upward trend between 2000 and 2023. Emissions rose from 3.5 million tons in 2000 to 4.8 million tons in 2005, before declining sharply to 2.3 million tons in 2010, likely due to a decrease in transport activity during the global financial crisis. Subsequently, emissions rebounded to 4.3 million tons in 2015 and peaked at 5.9 million tons in 2020. A slight decline to 5.4 million tons in 2023 may indicate the impact of improved fuel efficiency, modal shifts, or residual effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on mobility. This trend reflects the country’s continued dependence on ICE vehicles. The continued reliance on fossil-fueled vehicles worsens environmental degradation and increases economic vulnerability, owing to Myanmar’s dependency on imported oil. This dependency has become particularly problematic in recent years, with global oil production lagging in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with further disruptions stemming from the Russia–Ukraine conflict and production cuts by OPEC+ [10,11].

Domestically, these global developments have resulted in widespread fuel shortages in Myanmar’s urban centers, such as Yangon and Mandalay. Citizens face prolonged queues at fuel stations, and logistical challenges have worsened owing to the limited availability of petroleum [12]. Such scenarios highlight the urgency to identify alternative, sustainable, and resilient transportation solutions. The transition from conventional ICE vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) has emerged as a strategic response to the intersecting crises of climate change, energy insecurity, and economic instability [13,14].

Electric vehicles, particularly those powered by renewable energy, provide a zero-tailpipe emissions solution capable of significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions [15,16]. In addition to their environmental benefits, EVs also have long-term economic advantages by reducing fuel import costs [5,17], fostering domestic clean-tech industries [14], and stimulating innovation and employment through local manufacturing and infrastructure development [18]. As such, EV adoption aligns directly with Sustainable Development Goal 13 (Climate Action) while simultaneously contributing to economic resilience and industrial diversification [19,20].

Despite the clear environmental and economic imperatives, EV adoption in Myanmar remains limited. While government efforts, such as tax exemptions and pilot infrastructure projects, demonstrate political will [21], structural and socio-political barriers remain substantial. Challenges include an unreliable electricity supply [5], limited charging infrastructure [22], political instability [23], a lack of consumer awareness [24], and high upfront vehicle costs [10,25]—all of which hinder widespread EV adoption and investment. As a result, the total number of registered electric vehicles in 2024 is approximately 17,600, which is less than that of ASEAN countries [26].

Myanmar’s current energy infrastructure is ill-equipped to handle the electricity demands of large-scale EV deployment. Electricity coverage is approximately 54%, and regions such as Yangon experience rolling blackouts, with households often receiving electricity for only four hours a day [16]. Without significant investment in grid modernization and renewable energy integration, the environmental benefits of EVs could be undercut by reliance on carbon-intensive electricity generation [27,28].

Each region of Myanmar has its own set of mobility requirements apart from technical barriers. While electric cars and buses can be a solution in cities, rural areas that lack electricity and have poor road conditions need other options [29]. As such, EV strategies should be situated within a broader mobility framework that caters to varied infrastructure, income, and demographic needs across nations [30].

The existing literature on EVs in Myanmar is fragmented and typically focuses on isolated variables such as fuel cost or government incentives [31,32]. For instance, a bibliometric scan from 2015–2024 revealed fewer than 20 peer-reviewed articles focused on Myanmar’s EV transition, with 70% concentrating solely on cost–benefit or policy incentive analysis [9,13,31]. Multidimensional approaches that integrate infrastructure, governance, and socioeconomic dimensions remain rare. A comprehensive, multidimensional analysis that integrates environmental, economic, policy, and infrastructural considerations is lacking. This gap in scholarly discourse inhibits the development of an actionable, evidence-based roadmap for the EV transition in Myanmar. Furthermore, comparisons with regional leaders in EV adoption, such as Thailand and Vietnam, are rarely leveraged to contextualize Myanmar’s unique constraints and opportunities within the broader ASEAN landscape [33,34].

This paper is framed as an opinion piece rather than an empirical study. Nonetheless, we adopted a purposive review approach to enhance transparency and credibility. We selected sources based on their relevance to Myanmar’s transport and energy sectors, the ASEAN EV transition, environmental justice, and mobility equity.

The reviewed materials include peer-reviewed journal articles, doctoral theses, working papers, and policy documents from international agencies such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the International Energy Agency (IEA). In light of the limited peer-reviewed literature specific to Myanmar, we also incorporated contextually relevant gray literature, including government statements and reputable media coverage.

While a formal systematic review protocol was not employed, expert judgment and thematic relevance were used as guiding criteria for selection and synthesis. This approach aligns with established practices in opinion and perspective papers that aim to integrate diverse and timely insights [35].

This paper adopts a hybrid approach that combines cross-national EV policy analysis with localized synthesis of Myanmar-specific environmental, economic, and infrastructural data. By integrating comparative insights from regional leaders such as Thailand and Vietnam, along with a thorough examination of Myanmar’s internal challenges, the study identifies context-sensitive strategies for accelerating Myanmar’s electric vehicle (EV) transition. This hybrid method bridges conceptual analysis with a policy-oriented application, enabling the paper to move from global patterns to practical national recommendations.

In response to these shortcomings, this study aims to provide an integrated assessment of the transition from conventional to electric vehicles in Myanmar. The objectives of this study were as follows:

• Diagnose the core drivers catalyzing EV interest and adoption in Myanmar, including environmental, economic, and policy factors.
• Interrogate systemic barriers—infrastructural, political, and socioeconomic—that impede the scalability of EV technologies.
• Articulate strategic pathways to accelerate a just and sustainable EV transition through policy design, investment priorities, and multistakeholder collaboration.

This paper seeks to contribute to the nascent but vital body of scholarship on transport electrification in developing, politically complex contexts by addressing these objectives. It also aims to inform policymakers, investors, and development partners working to align Myanmar’s energy and mobility systems with the global sustainability goals. The transition to EVs in Myanmar is not merely a technological challenge but a systemic transformation that intersects with issues of governance, equity, and resilience. Understanding this transition in its full complexity is essential for crafting informed, inclusive, and forward-looking solutions. In this paper, the EV transition refers to a comprehensive transformation that encompasses the adoption of EVs, the development of charging infrastructure, the integration of renewable energy sources, the establishment of local EV manufacturing and maintenance systems, and the implementation of supportive policies and regulations. This comprehensive scope lays the foundation for the discussion in Section 2 on the key drivers of Myanmar’s EV transition and in Section 3 on the systemic barriers hindering its progress.

2. Drivers of the Transition to Electric Vehicles in Myanmar

The growing urgency of climate action, energy insecurity, and regional industrial transformation provides a compelling rationale for Myanmar to embrace EVs. This section explores three primary drivers behind the country’s shift toward EV adoption: environmental imperatives, energy and economic pressures, and regional competitiveness linked to industrial development opportunities.

2.1. Climate and Public Health Imperatives

Climate change has intensified environmental risks and public health concerns globally, with Myanmar being no exception. Urban centers such as Yangon and Mandalay suffer from acute air pollution exacerbated by outdated internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, most of which are imported and lack modern emission controls [6,36]. Emissions from these vehicles, including fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), contribute to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and premature mortality [1,2]. The health burden is compounded by increasing temperatures, which facilitate the spread of vector-borne diseases and intensify heat-related morbidity [4,7].

The introduction of EVs offers a critical mitigation strategy [37]. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), in particular, emit no tailpipe pollutants, thereby directly reducing urban smog and enhancing air quality [15,27]. The public health benefits of transitioning to EVs, such as lower asthma rates, improved cardiovascular outcomes, and reduced healthcare costs, are substantial [1,38]. Furthermore, when powered by renewable energy, EVs present a significantly lower life-cycle carbon footprint than ICE vehicles, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by up to 70% [16,39]. As climate risks escalate, transport electrification has emerged as a climate solution and a public health necessity.

Environmental Trade-Offs of EVs

The use of electric vehicles (EVs) significantly reduces the emission of greenhouse gases compared with the use of petrol and diesel vehicles. Despite the growing popularity of electric vehicles, it is important to evaluate their environmental performance throughout their life cycle.

As shown in

Table 2. Life-cycle emissions of electric and combustion engine vehicles (in tCO₂e).

Stage	Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)	Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)	Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV)
Battery Manufacturing	5	1	0
Vehicle Manufacturing	9	9	10
Fuel/Electricity Production	26	12	13
Tailpipe Emissions	0	24	32
Maintenance	1	2	2
End-of-Life (Recycling Credit)	−2	−1	−1
Total Emissions	39	47	55

Source: [40].

, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have the lowest total life-cycle emissions, at 39 tCO₂e, compared to 47 tCO₂e for hybrid electric vehicles and 55 tCO₂e for ICEVs. The main contributors to EV emissions were battery manufacturing and electricity production. The battery production for BEVs was approximately 40% higher than that for the other vehicle types.

The CO₂e emissions for all forms of vehicle manufacturing were 9–10 tCO₂e. The largest difference comes from the use phase. For battery electric vehicles (BEVs), fuel and power production generate 26 tCO₂e, but tailpipe emissions are zero. However, ICEVs generate substantially more tailpipe pollution (32 tCO₂e) and are mildly comparable (13 tCO₂e) in terms of fuel production pollution. By increasing the share of renewables, the use-phase emissions of EVs can be reduced by approximately 9.4% [41]. This underscores the need to decarbonize the electricity sector.

Recycling and refurbishing batteries can be viable solutions to limit environmental damage by reducing emissions by 8.3% [42]. Second-use applications can prolong the battery life. Nonetheless, the rising demand for rare earth materials poses challenges related to resource scarcity and toxicity concerns. Robust policy measures that promote circular economy principles and sustainable supply chains are required to address these issues.

Although the shift to electric vehicles is evident from the analysis of tailpipe emissions, a life-cycle view is essential to assess their impact. To develop evidence-based policies for energy transformation in Myanmar, it is vital to assess total emissions, including manufacturing, electricity generation, and end-of-life disposal. EVs are certainly cleaner over their life cycles. However, the full environmental benefits will only be realized with further decarbonization of Myanmar’s power grid and the encouragement of sustainable battery recycling systems. This illustrates the connection between EV policy and energy reform.

2.2. Energy Security and Macroeconomic Resilience

Myanmar’s economic vulnerability is closely linked to its dependence on imported fossil fuels. The country imports more than 90% of its refined petroleum [36,43], exposing it to global energy market volatility. This dependence was starkly illustrated during the post-COVID-19 recovery, when slow supply chain normalization and geopolitical disruptions, including the Russia–Ukraine conflict and OPEC+ production cuts, led to global fuel shortages and price surges [10,11].

Domestically, this translates into fuel scarcity and inflationary pressure. In 2024, major urban areas experienced long fuel queues and erratic availability, disrupting mobility and logistics [44]. In this context, EV adoption offers a pathway to reducing reliance on volatile global oil markets. Although EVs still require electricity, their energy can be generated from domestic renewable sources, particularly solar and hydropower, thereby improving their energy sovereignty [5,28]. This shift aligns with the Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan (MSDP), which envisions a greater role for renewable energy in powering the country, especially in rural areas [5,19]. EVs can contribute to greater macroeconomic resilience by reducing fuel import bills and insulating the economy from external shocks [13,14].

2.3. Regional Competitiveness and Industrial Opportunity

Myanmar is situated in a region that has witnessed rapid transformation in the automotive and clean-energy sectors. Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia have emerged as EV manufacturing and adoption leaders in Southeast Asia, leveraging strategic government incentives, public–private partnerships, and foreign direct investment [14,20,45]. These countries are not only transitioning their domestic fleets, but are also positioning themselves as exporters of EV components and vehicles [34].

By contrast, Myanmar risks falling behind unless it proactively engages in this evolving regional landscape. Despite its challenges, Myanmar also presents notable strategic opportunities. It possesses key comparative advantages, including a large, cost-effective labor force and abundant mineral reserves such as nickel—a crucial input for EV battery production [43,46]. According to International Labour Organization statistics (2024), the average monthly wage in Myanmar’s manufacturing sector is approximately USD 145, significantly lower than USD 275 in Vietnam and over USD 400 in Thailand. This wage advantage, coupled with Myanmar’s geographic proximity to major regional EV supply chains [23], enhances its potential as a competitive hub for EV component assembly and logistics. Furthermore, strong bilateral relations with China open doors for technology transfer and investment, particularly from established Chinese EV manufacturers, such as BYD and NIO [28]. By aligning national policies with regional trends, such as Thailand’s battery local-content mandates [16] and Indonesia’s investment incentives for EV assembly [14], Myanmar can attract capital to the local EV manufacturing, assembly, and battery recycling industries. This would diversify the economy, create high-quality jobs, and enhance technological capabilities [13,33]. The localization of EV production, supported by tax incentives and infrastructure investment, can drive industrial upgrading and help integrate Myanmar into global clean-tech value chains [17,34].

Analyzing Myanmar’s electric vehicle (EV) market requires an informed comparative assessment of regional leaders such as Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia. This can be undertaken by considering critical structural differences, including GDP per capita, political stability, and electrification rates.

Table 3. Comparative analysis between Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia.

Country	EVs Registered	Access to Electricity (% of Population)	GDP Per Capita (USD)	Political Stability Index	EV Incentives
Myanmar	17,600	76.8	1233.2	−2.13	Moderate
Thailand	206,000	100	7182	−0.28	Strong
Vietnam	~65,000+	99.8	4282.1	−0.04	Moderate
Indonesia	195,000	99.4	4876.31	−0.4	Strong
Malaysia	69,371	100	11,379.1	0.17	Strong

Source: [47].

presents a compilation of these indicators along with the EV adoption metrics. Myanmar faces unique constraints and opportunities within the ASEAN context.

As of 2025, the GDP per capita in Myanmar is much lower than that in Thailand and Malaysia. It is also slightly lower than that in Vietnam and Indonesia. This indicates lower consumer purchasing power and limited capacity for the government to invest in infrastructure for EV charging stations, which are essential to the EV incentive. At 76.8%, the electrification rate is well below the near-universal rates in Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia [48]. This limits the potential applications of EVs. In addition, ongoing volatility persists in Myanmar, as its political stability index (−2.1) [49] goes against foreign investment and policymaking. The country’s economy is struggling; therefore, EV subsidies are not as effective either [50]. Still, tariff exemptions are given on battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Moreover, the government allowed several companies to use EVs. This indicates increasing interest in and requirement for EVs in the country.

Table 4. SWOT analysis of the EV market in Myanmar.

Strengths	Weaknesses
Growing EV market with registered vehicles.	Lower GDP per capita limits purchasing power.
Government incentives such as tariff exemptions on BEVs.	Electrification rate is below regional peers.
Companies authorized to import EVs, increased competition.	Investment and continuity of policies are affected by political instability.
Emerging public interest in sustainable transport.	Limited EV infrastructure and charging networks.
-	Underdeveloped renewable energy integration.
Opportunities	Threats
Learning from Vietnam and Thailand’s success with EV policies.	Political instability may worsen, hindering investment.
Demand for clean mobility in regional areas is growing.	Gaps in infrastructure are hindering adoption and consumer confidence.
International climate finance and development aid access.	Competition from cheaper conventional vehicles.
Increasing global focus on sustainability is driving reforms.	Increasing costs due to economic challenges and currency fluctuation.

outlines the SWOT analysis of Myanmar’s internal strengths, weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats to clarify its position further and guide strategic interventions.

This combination of contextual and SWOT analyses shows that Myanmar has a disadvantageous starting point compared to its ASEAN neighbors. Nonetheless, it also identifies concrete pathways for growth. Awareness of these structural differences and challenges will enable policy recommendations to be realistic and rooted in Myanmar’s context rather than its region.

In summary, Myanmar’s drivers of the EV transition are multifaceted and interlinked. Environmental degradation and public health risks necessitate cleaner transport options [1,42,51]. Fuel insecurity and economic volatility make EVs a strategic imperative for national resilience [5,11], allowing Myanmar to redefine its economic trajectory through participation in the EV revolution. These drivers provide a compelling justification for urgent and coordinated action to support the transition to electric mobility in Myanmar.

To identify the key influencing factors behind the EV transition in Myanmar, a conceptual framework has been developed (Figure 2). This framework comprises three components: drivers, barriers, and strategic enablers. Drivers such as climate and health imperatives, energy security, macroeconomic resilience, regional competitiveness, and industrial opportunity are indicating a growing momentum for the transition. Nonetheless, adoption is constrained by significant barriers, including infrastructural limitations, grid deficiencies, political instability, investment risk, and socioeconomic and consumer behavior [52,53,54,55,56,57]. Strategic enablers, including policy and regulatory support, infrastructure development, financial mechanisms, stakeholder engagement, and capacity development, may mitigate these constraints. This framework provides a structured lens through which to analyze the opportunities and constraints that Myanmar’s mobility transformation faces, serving as a foundation for the discussions in the following sections.

3. Systemic Barriers to Electric Vehicle Adoption in Myanmar

Despite the evident environmental and economic rationale for transitioning to EVs, Myanmar faces a confluence of systemic barriers that hinder the widespread adoption and integration of EV technology. These challenges are not only technical or economic but are embedded within broader structural and institutional constraints. This section categorizes the primary barriers into three interrelated domains: infrastructural limitations, political and investment risk, and socioeconomic and behavioral factors.

3.1. Infrastructural Limitations and Grid Deficiencies

The foremost challenge for EV adoption in Myanmar is the inadequacy of the country’s energy and transport infrastructure. Electrification coverage remains uneven, with only approximately 76.8% of the population having access to reliable electricity [47]. Urban centers, such as Yangon, experience regular blackouts, with some areas receiving as little as four hours of electricity per day [16]. This fragile power supply is ill-suited to supporting large-scale EV charging, particularly for fast-charging stations that require high-voltage and stable electricity flows [39].

Additionally, there is a lack of EV-supportive infrastructure. Charging networks are almost non-existent beyond pilot installations in select areas. The absence of charging stations reinforces consumer range anxiety [58], and limits the feasibility of EV use beyond major cities [22]. These limitations are compounded by poor road conditions and a low-quality transport logistics network [9], which further disincentivizes EV manufacturers from entering the market and consumers from adopting new vehicle technologies [59]. The difference was even stronger for remote areas where the grid was not connected. In such contexts, it is unrealistic to imagine the adoption of conventional EVs without models, such as solar-charged two-wheelers and microgrids, for the rural sector [60].

Without significant upgrades to the national grid, including transmission capacity enhancements, load-balancing systems, and the integration of renewable energy, the expansion of EVs could further strain the system [27,61]. Moreover, coordination between transport and energy planning remains limited, resulting in a lack of strategic alignment to ensure infrastructure readiness for electrified mobility [5,19].

3.2. Political Instability and Investment Risk

Political instability remains a significant barrier to EV development in Myanmar. The 2021 military coup severely disrupted institutional governance, weakened regulatory capacity, and eroded investor confidence [23]. Investors increasingly perceive Myanmar as a high-risk environment, deterring the long-term capital investments necessary for EV manufacturing, battery recycling plants, and nationwide charging infrastructure [17,19]. While certain policy frameworks and incentive schemes exist, such as import duty exemptions for EVs and tax breaks for investors, these are inconsistently applied or abruptly reversed due to prevailing policy uncertainty [13,20]. Regulatory instability limits the bankability of EV-related projects and discourages the participation of both domestic and international stakeholders [61].

Geopolitical tensions, particularly in regions rich in critical minerals such as nickel and rare earth elements (REEs), further exacerbate these risks. Armed resistance in areas such as Kachin State impedes safe and sustainable mining operations, disrupts potential supply chains for battery manufacturing, and reinforces investors’ perceptions of risk [59,62].

In addition to political violence and security threats, Myanmar’s EV sector is affected by deeper structural risks related to militarization and institutional decay. Military-linked companies dominate EV imports and infrastructure, with key licenses granted to firms associated with the ruling generals’ families, thereby distorting market competition and steering policies toward elite interests [63,64]. This monopolization undermines regulatory credibility and introduces reputational risks for investors. Furthermore, the degradation of institutional capacity post-coup, marked by administrative purges, civil service paralysis, and energy supply failures, has impaired the state’s ability to implement and monitor EV-related policies [65].

Frequent reversals in policy directives further heighten uncertainty. For example, initial EV import tax waivers were rescinded amid foreign currency shortages. EV eligibility was at one point linked to diaspora remittance thresholds, highlighting the ad hoc and extractive nature of current economic governance [66]. Myanmar’s international isolation compounds these issues by limiting access to climate finance, technology transfer, and regulatory expertise [67].

In this high-risk context, structured political risk mitigation is essential for attracting and retaining investment. A practical framework includes (1) maintaining robust relationships with governmental actors, including transitional authorities, (2) purchasing political risk insurance through international institutions, (3) partnering with local and international contractors to balance capability and compliance, and (4) carefully selecting project types and entry modes based on market and governance conditions [68]. Where feasible, stability clauses in contracts and sovereign guarantees further enhance project bankability [69]. Additionally, blending international financing with political risk guarantees from institutions such as the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) can significantly improve investor confidence [70].

Moreover, adaptive strategies can be employed to sustain EV momentum despite volatile governance. Decentralizing EV initiatives to subnational authorities and community organizations allows progress to continue independently of central political shifts. International partnerships, particularly through regional frameworks like ASEAN, can provide policy continuity and knowledge sharing. Civil society and private sector actors also play critical roles in piloting scalable innovations and generating local buy-in. Where formal governance is fragmented, small-scale, donor-supported EV projects with localized operations and low regulatory exposure may be more feasible. Conversely, in reformed or inclusive governance scenarios, opportunities for integrated, large-scale EV infrastructure become viable, especially when underpinned by legal reforms, regulatory predictability, and access to multilateral financing [71].

3.3. Socioeconomic Barriers and Consumer Behavior

Myanmar’s low per capita income significantly affected the affordability and accessibility of EVs. Many EVs are priced between 80 and 200 million MMK, making them out of reach for most citizens [25,72]. The lack of affordable financing mechanisms, such as green loans, leasing options, or second-hand EV markets, further compounded the cost issue [10,17]. Most private banks remain reluctant to provide favorable loan terms for EV purchases because of uncertainties around residual vehicle values, depreciation rates, and the nascent resale market [14]. Conventional ICE vehicles benefit from established financing and well-understood secondary market dynamics, reinforcing consumer preferences for legacy technologies [23,32].

Public awareness and perception pose significant challenges. Many consumers lack accurate information about the life-cycle cost savings of EVs, their positive environmental impacts, and their reduced maintenance requirements. A 2023 survey conducted by Myanmar EV Insight [24] found that only 18% of Yangon respondents correctly estimated the lower lifetime maintenance costs of EVs, and nearly 62% believed battery replacement would be required every two years, despite the typical battery warranty being five to eight years. Misconceptions regarding battery lifespan, fire safety, and charging reliability persist [73], especially in rural and peri-urban areas, where anecdotal reports spread rapidly [34]. The absence of widespread test-drive programs or certified EV maintenance networks further undermines confidence, leaving potential buyers uncertain about post-purchase support [18,33].

The availability of spare parts and specialized maintenance services is severely limited. Because most EVs in Myanmar are imported from China, replacement components can take two to three months to arrive, leading to prolonged vehicle downtime and mounting inconvenience for owners [39,74]. This logistical friction inconveniences individual users and amplifies negative perceptions of the overall reliability and total cost of ownership [20,27].

Social and cultural norms further complicate the uptake of EVs. Myanmar’s automotive market is traditionally dominated by right-hand-driven imports from Japan and South Korea, with buyers accustomed to familiar vehicle technologies, service patterns, and resale channels [23,31]. Transitioning to EVs, which requires entirely new charging behaviors, digital interfaces, and service protocols, demands significant behavioral adjustments that many users, particularly in low-literacy or resource-constrained communities, find difficult [38,59].

Therefore, barriers to EV adoption in Myanmar are multifaceted and deeply entrenched. The combination of high purchase prices, limited financing, pervasive misinformation, scarcity of spare parts, and culturally embedded vehicle preferences creates a challenging environment for electrified mobility. Addressing these socioeconomic and behavioral constraints will require comprehensive strategies ranging from public subsidy schemes, consumer education campaigns, and financing innovations to the local assembly of key components and robust after-sales networks. Without such a holistic approach, the EV transition in Myanmar risks remaining an aspirational policy goal rather than a reality.

Rural farmers, urban workers, students, and the elderly have varied transportation requirements. These vary not only in terms of the mode of transportation but also in terms of access to time, income, infrastructure, and skills [75]. For example, electric cars and super-fast charge points might work for urban communities, whereas low-cost e-bikes or solar tuk-tuks may be useful for rural communities. Therefore, strategies for the future must be inclusive, multimodal, and adapted to the local context.

4. Strategic Pathways for Advancing Electric Mobility in Myanmar

Overcoming systemic barriers to EV adoption in Myanmar requires a coordinated multidimensional approach that bridges policy, infrastructure, and social engagement. This section outlines the strategic pathways to support a just and sustainable EV transition, focusing on three core areas: policy and regulatory development, infrastructure expansion and modernization, and stakeholder engagement and capacity building.

4.1. Policy Instruments and Regulatory Certainty

Robust and coherent policy frameworks are essential to accelerate the adoption of EVs in Myanmar. Establishing long-term, transparent, and enforceable policies enhances investor confidence and shapes consumer behavior in favor of sustainable mobility [13,19]. A phased and granular implementation roadmap is necessary to operationalize these frameworks effectively while addressing fiscal, institutional, and governance-related constraints.

In the short term (Years 1–2), Myanmar should consolidate all existing incentives, import duty exemptions, excise tax relief, and road tax holidays into a unified EV Master Regulation valid through 2030. This legal instrument should be issued as an Executive Order with cross-ministerial backing to enhance regulatory durability amidst potential political turnover. Parallelly, national standards for battery safety, charger interoperability, and vehicle homologation aligned with ASEAN norms should be gazetted to reduce technical ambiguity and attract regional investors [45,61].

To create an early demonstration effect, the government should launch a “Government Fleet-First” initiative, electrifying public-sector transport by procuring an initial fleet of 500 e-buses and 1000 e-motorbikes [21]. This initiative reduces direct emissions from public vehicles and signals institutional commitment. The program will require approximately USD 30 million, with potential reallocation from defense or police budgets to minimize fiscal risk. To avoid bureaucratic bottlenecks, regulatory enforcement should be preceded by targeted training programs for RTAD inspectors.

In the medium term (Years 3–5), a formal Scrappage and Retrofit Act should be enacted to systematically retire aging internal combustion engine (ICE) two- and three-wheelers, which dominate Myanmar’s urban transport fleet [18,32]. The scheme should include voucher-based incentives (approximately USD 800 per vehicle) for eligible users redeemable at approved retrofit centers. To fund this program sustainably, the government should introduce green bonds with proceeds earmarked for EV infrastructure and public transit electrification. Issuance of these bonds should be accompanied by political risk insurance through multilateral institutions like MIGA to bolster investor confidence [68,70]. Pilot implementation of the scrappage scheme in Yangon can provide proof-of-concept and stress-test fraud controls before a national rollout.

In the long term (Years 5–10), Myanmar should implement a Local Content Requirement (LCR) mandating that 30% of EV components be locally produced or assembled to stimulate domestic value chains and industrial upgrading. This target should be staged (15% by Year 6, 30% by Year 10) to ease compliance and allow supplier development. To ensure environmental sustainability, a revised Waste Management Law must incorporate Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) provisions for battery collection, recycling, and reuse [76,77]. These provisions will help Myanmar avoid the secondary ecological burdens associated with battery proliferation while promoting circular economy practices [42].

Lastly, strategic public-sector procurement should continue to anchor market development. Additional pilot projects, such as electric taxis in Yangon and electrified municipal vehicles, will generate operational data and help build public trust in EV reliability. Coordination across ministries and development partners is essential to align financing, standards, and enforcement.

Table 5. Stakeholder mapping table.

Stake Holder	Role in EV Transition	Relevant Areas
Ministry of Electricity and Energy (MoEE)	Oversees electricity generation and distribution; responsible for grid upgrades and integrating renewable energy	EV charging infrastructure, microgrids, and energy security
Ministry of Transport and Communication (MoTC)	Regulates the transport system and vehicle standards; involved in planning transport electrification	Road transport policy, vehicle standards, and public transit electrification
Road Transport Administration Department (RTAD)	Under the MoTC, responsible for vehicle registration, licensing, and road permits	EV registration, vehicle inspection, and implementation of import policies
Ministry of Planning and Finance (MoPF)	Sets tax policies and manages national budget; critical for EV fiscal incentives	Tax exemptions for EVs, import duty adjustments
Ministry of Industry (MoI)	Encourages local manufacturing, including potential EV assembly and battery production	Domestic EV production, industrial policy, supply chain development
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation (MoNREC)	Oversees environmental protection, including emissions regulation and waste management	Battery disposal policies, life-cycle emissions, and recycling programs
Private sector (importers, EV companies, charge point operators)	Imports, distributes, and maintains EVs; installs and manages charging networks	Market development, after-sales service, and investment
Development partners (ADB, UNESCAP, UNEP, bilateral donors)	Provide funding, technical advice, and capacity building	Grid investment, pilot projects, and regulatory reform support

below provides a stakeholder mapping matrix, delineating key institutional responsibilities in Myanmar’s EV policy ecosystem.

4.2. Infrastructure Roadmap and Grid Readiness

Reliable, strategically distributed charging infrastructure is essential for scaling EV adoption in Myanmar. A granular, phased deployment roadmap aligned with national grid capacity, urban–rural infrastructure needs, and geopolitical constraints is necessary to ensure that infrastructure expansion is both technically feasible and financially viable.

• Phase 1: Urban Fast-Charging Network (Years 1–2)

Initial investments should focus on Myanmar’s three key metropolitan areas—Yangon, Mandalay, and Naypyidaw. Fast-charging stations (DC chargers ≥50 kW) should be installed at high-traffic corridors, including near government complexes, malls, and transport terminals. An estimated USD 40 million will be required to deploy an initial network of 100 fast-charging units, including land acquisition, transformer upgrades, and software systems. This phase should leverage public–private partnerships (PPPs) to share risks and capital expenditure, with tariff revenue models backed by partial sovereign guarantees to attract foreign energy firms [78,79]. To mitigate procurement bottlenecks, the Ministry of Electricity and Energy (MoEE) must pre-approve standardized hardware vendors while training technicians in partnership with regional agencies like UNEP.

• Phase 2: Rural and Off-Grid Expansion via Solar Microgrids (Years 2–5)

In rural areas with limited grid connectivity, solar-powered microgrid charging hubs offer an affordable and decentralized solution. These stations should prioritize low-speed electric two- and three-wheelers, commonly used by rural populations. Each microgrid unit, costing around USD 120,000, should combine a 20 kW solar array, 100 kWh battery storage, and Level 2 (AC) charging units, potentially serving up to 30 vehicles per day. A minimum of 200 units is needed to reach initial rural targets, totaling USD 24 million. Risk mitigation includes engaging local cooperatives for site maintenance and applying for concessional financing through the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Development partners can assist with geospatial siting to ensure equitable distribution across underserved regions [5,27].

• Phase 3: Battery-Swapping Infrastructure for Light Fleets (Years 3–6)

To support two- and three-wheel EV adoption in cities, battery-swapping stations provide a cost-effective alternative to fixed-charging infrastructure. These systems, proven successful in India and China, require standardized battery modules, real-time inventory management software, and certified safety protocols. Myanmar should pilot 50 battery-swapping kiosks in Yangon, each costing approximately USD 60,000, requiring a total investment of USD 3 million. Partnerships with Chinese EV brands such as NIO and Aion, who already dominate Myanmar’s EV imports, can provide technology transfer and financing via build–operate–transfer (BOT) contracts [22]. Risk mitigation involves pre-certification of battery models, backup power units for downtime, and remote monitoring systems.

• National Grid Modernization and Renewable Integration (Ongoing, Years 1–10)

Simultaneously, the national grid must undergo significant modernization. Myanmar’s grid upgrade should follow a three-tier strategy:

• Short-term upgrades to transmission and substation capacity in urban EV corridors.
• Medium-term deployment of smart meters, load-balancing software, and automated demand-response systems.
• Long-term integration of renewables (solar, hydro) with EV load profiles via virtual power plants (VPPs) and grid storage.

Over ten years, an estimated USD 500 million is required for comprehensive grid reforms. These costs can be partly defrayed through the issuance of green bonds tied to decarbonization and transport electrification outcomes. To safeguard against governance failures, bond issuance should be overseen by an independent audit board, and funds ring-fenced for grid projects only [16,28]. Feed-in tariffs for renewable electricity producers should be locked in for a 10-year period to ensure bankability and grid diversification [49].

4.3. Stakeholder Engagement and Capacity Development

The success of Myanmar’s transition to electric mobility depends on infrastructure development and supportive policy frameworks, comprehensive stakeholder engagement, and robust capacity development. A multi-pronged strategy encompassing public education, workforce training, local industrial promotion, and international collaboration is essential to ensure system-wide adoption and sustainability.

In the short term (Years 1–3), the government should launch a nationwide public awareness campaign to address pervasive misinformation about electric vehicles, including concerns over cost, safety, maintenance, and battery life [24,73]. This campaign should span radio, television, digital platforms, and grassroots initiatives in schools, religious centers, and local councils. To effectively reach marginalized communities, materials must be translated into local languages and disseminated through culturally trusted channels. An estimated USD 4–6 million should be allocated over three years to support content development, media airtime, educator training, and community outreach events. Periodic perception surveys and focus group discussions should be conducted to monitor shifts in public attitudes and adjust messaging accordingly [19].

Simultaneously, Myanmar must build a qualified workforce to support the anticipated growth of the EV sector. Over the medium term (Years 1–5), vocational education and training institutions must revise curricula to include modules on EV diagnostics, battery management, power electronics, and charging infrastructure maintenance [18,27]. At least ten polytechnic and technical colleges should be upgraded to offer competency-based, modular training in collaboration with industry partners from Thailand, Vietnam, and China. Estimated investment requirements range from USD 10 to 15 million, including laboratory equipment, instructor training, and international technical assistance [14]. Risk mitigation strategies should involve employer-led advisory committees to prevent skill mismatches, ongoing labor market needs assessments, and ASEAN-recognized certification programs to ensure employability across the region [45].

From an industrial perspective (Years 2–7), Myanmar must nurture local enterprises engaged in EV assembly, battery recycling, and charging infrastructure. Fiscal instruments such as tax holidays, low-interest loans, and subsidized land leases in dedicated EV industrial zones should be introduced to attract domestic entrepreneurs and foreign investors [80]. A proposed USD 50 million EV Industry Development Fund jointly capitalized by the Myanmar government, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), and bilateral donors could provide targeted financial support for SMEs. To mitigate environmental and financial risks, project proposals should be subject to environmental impact assessments, third-party audits, and milestone-based disbursements [19,46].

International cooperation will play a catalytic role in enhancing stakeholder capacity. Myanmar should engage in structured South–South knowledge exchange, drawing from Thailand’s rollout of EV charging networks [45], Indonesia’s incentives for localized assembly [14], and Vietnam’s comprehensive consumer education policies [33]. Regional harmonization of safety standards, battery disposal regulations, and infrastructure protocols through ASEAN platforms will enable economies of scale and facilitate cross-border trade [34,61]. Development partners such as the ADB, UNESCAP, and UNEP should continue to offer policy toolkits, training fellowships, and concessional finance mechanisms to accelerate implementation [17,46]. These efforts must be coordinated through a national EV Task Force comprising government ministries, industry, academia, and civil society representatives to ensure coherence, inclusivity, and continuity.

5. Discussion

This section reflects on the key findings and strategic propositions outlined in the preceding sections, with the aim of situating Myanmar’s EV transition roadmap within both regional and global contexts. It explores how lessons from neighboring countries can inform local adaptation and how the proposed framework compares to existing strategies developed by other institutions and governments. By doing so, it offers a critical lens on the feasibility, distinctiveness, and advantages of the approach advocated in this paper.

5.1. Regional Case Studies as a Learning Model

Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam have implemented comprehensive policies to address the challenges of electric vehicle (EV) adoption, thereby offering important lessons for Myanmar’s emerging EV sector.

5.1.1. Thailand’s Battery End-of-Life Policy

By 2043, Thailand is expected to produce 2.5 million tons of EV battery waste owing to the rapid adoption of EVs [77]. The country does not have specific laws for managing EV batteries, leading to inconsistent and improper disposal methods. In response to this situation, Thailand is in the process of drafting the “Electric and Electronic Equipment Waste Management Act,” which regulates the collection, recycling, and disposal of batteries [76]. The new law will set norms for the storage, transport, and repurposing of used batteries. Furthermore, this law will encourage the development of a national tracking system and a domestic recycling industry [77]. In addition, it provides incentives and possible tax reductions. This broad strategy will safeguard people and the environment and promote sustainable growth in the sector.

5.1.2. Vietnam’s Consumer Incentive Campaign

Vietnam promotes EV adoption by providing tax and fee exemptions. The government officially extended the 100% exemption on EV registration fees until 28 February 2027 [47]. This measure will significantly lower EV ownership costs, encouraging consumers to shift away from fossil-fuel vehicles.

Vietnam’s policy includes incentives for batteries, hydrogen fuel cells, and solar EVs. Moreover, it recommends adding EV manufacturing, assembly, and batteries to the list of industries to provide special investment incentives. The country offers further exemptions and reductions in import taxes on equipment and components used for manufacturing EVs, battery demand, and local industrial development [33]. To support Vietnam’s ambition to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, this strategy will stimulate further domestic industry development and encourage investment in charging infrastructure to resolve the current barriers.

5.1.3. Malaysia’s Integrated Tax and Infrastructure Incentives

The Malaysian government launched an array of incentives under its National Energy Transition Roadmap. This involves full exemption from import and excise duties for completely built-up EVs until 31 December 2025, and for local assembly of EV components until 31 December 2027 [81]. EV owners will not need to pay any road tax until 2025, after which their rates will be much lower. In relation to infrastructure, individuals are granted up to MMK 2500 in income tax relief for installing or subscribing to EV charging services, while manufacturers enjoy significant tax exemptions and investment allowances [82]. These measures will lower the cost of EVs, increase the availability of charging facilities, and attract consumers and investors to the Malaysian EV sector.

Despite their varied economic and institutional capacities, Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia have similar EV adoption issues. These issues include affordability, infrastructure, and environmental regulation. Myanmar could accelerate its EV transition by adopting regional best practices. These include offering tax exemptions and subsidies, such as those in Malaysia and Vietnam, investing in a national charging network (with solar options for rural areas), and ensuring that support reaches small and medium enterprises. Collaborating with the ASEAN on battery standards and cross-border infrastructure will enhance regional integration. Pilot projects such as electric taxis and buses in cities can help build public trust and support long-term EV adoption.

5.2. Comparison Between the Thailand and Proposed Myanmar Roadmaps

To demonstrate the value of the proposed EV roadmap to be implemented in Myanmar, a comparison with the available EV roadmap from another country would be the best approach. Among regional peers, Thailand presents the most suitable comparison due to its geographical proximity and relevant contextual similarities, such as aspirations in automotive manufacturing, a growing EV market, and evolving public acceptance of electric vehicles. Additionally, Thailand has developed a more comprehensive and complete EV transition roadmap with clear targets and goals through the EV30@30 campaign. This paper will compare both roadmaps in terms of their categories, representing the government, industries, and the public.

Table 6. Comparison between Thailand and proposed Myanmar roadmaps.

Category	Thailand EV Roadmap	Proposed Myanmar EV Roadmap	Advantages
Policy Targets	EV30@30: 30% ZEV production by 2030, strong top-down push [83]	Gradual, modular approach based on local demand and infrastructure.	More realistic for developing context and constraints.
Government Role	BOI-led incentives, FDI attraction, tax breaks [84]	Focus on government fleets and local legislation.	Creates domestic demand instead of depending on foreign investors.
Incentives and Investment	Major subsidies for cars and motorcycles [83]	Custom incentives for two- and three-wheelers and public fleets.	Prioritizes affordable, high-impact vehicles for faster adoption.
Infrastructure	Target 12,000 chargers by 2030 despite grid congestion and investor fatigue issues [79]	Deploying in stages, charging on solar energy in rural areas, battery swapping, and fast charging in urban areas.	Promotes energy independence and distributed load management.
Manufacturing	Relies on OEMs and FDI for assembly and batteries [85]	Encourages local supply chains, SMEs, and battery recycling.	Builds domestic capacity, reduces FDI dependency.
Public Engagement	Moderate, urban-focused outreach [86]	Grassroots education, local languages, pilot programs.	Increases trust and awareness in underserved regions.

above shows the available EV transition roadmap that is being implemented by Thailand’s government. In 2021, Thailand’s government introduced the terms of the EV30@30 campaign, which aims to reach a 30% sales share for EVs in the year of 2030 [83]. This approach coordinates between available and future EV industries under the leadership of Thailand’s government to ensure the success of the campaign by pushing for implementation and adjustment policies, infrastructure development, and incentives to encourage the acceptance of EV adoption by Thailand’s citizens.

The EV30@30 campaign is full of ideal numbers in the blueprint, yet the actual implementation and actions have been occurring in a slow and delayed state. For example, in the EV30@30 phase 1 planning, the assumption was that the preparation for early EV adoption by building EV infrastructures, such as charging stations, would be completed within the year of 2022, yet in the actual implementation, Thailand’s government has faced dozens of obstacles that caused delays in its progression. The time of the writing of this paper is during the proposed period of production, the year 2025; even in this case, Thailand’s government could not accomplish phase 1, but is seeking to progress to phase 2 alongside phase 1 [83].

The comparative table above shows that the EV roadmap proposed for implementation in Myanmar is more flexible and demand-driven. The proposed roadmap for EV adoption is likely to be quite different from Thailand’s roadmap in terms of structure and strategies, as seen in the above comparative table. The proposed roadmap takes a more modular, gradual approach suited to local infrastructure, market realities, and socioeconomic constraints.

Thailand’s government uses its Board of Investment (BOI) to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and provide large-scale tax incentives to global automakers [84]. However, the ecosystem is heavily dependent on many external factors. In contrast, the roadmap proposed by this paper recommends prioritizing domestic government fleet conversion and passing enabling legislation for local innovation and entrepreneurship. This method depends less on foreign investors and enables the generation of internal demand, which is more sustainable in nature.

Thailand has focused on subsidies for private EVs, including electric cars and motorcycles, to actively encourage some demand. However, the outreach regarding information about these benefits to the rural and lower-income communities is slow. The proposed roadmap for Myanmar prioritizes two- and three-wheelers and public fleets that are affordable and sustainable, rather than passenger cars.

For infrastructure, Thailand targeted 12,000 EV chargers by 2030. Their grid constraints and investor fatigue are limiting factors [79]. The proposed roadmap includes solar-powered charging in rural areas, battery-swapping stations, and fast chargers in urban areas. This helps relieve pressure on the grid at a national level while enabling energy self-sufficiency and load management. These critical factors are a must for a country with extremely high grid inefficiencies.

Moreover, the manufacturing and battery supply chain is dominated downstream by large OEMs (including foreign investors) [85]. Strong roles are proposed for local SMEs, supply chain development, and battery recycling initiatives. It creates domestic capacity, retains more economic value in the country, and promotes green industrialization.

The public engagement strategy of Thailand has mainly focused on urban campaigns [86], while failing to engage rural areas and the informal sector. According to the proposed roadmap, Myanmar will carry out simple yet careful activities to build confidence using local languages and community-level pilot projects. This ensures inclusivity, especially in neglected areas with higher resistance to change.

In conclusion, compared with the established EV transition roadmap of Thailand’s government, the proposed Myanmar EV transition roadmap adopts a more realistic and dynamic approach. This roadmap can ensure that Myanmar is capable of making needed adjustments and taking actions while facing many kinds of obstacles. Ultimately, the proposed roadmap positions Myanmar to achieve strong success in its EV transition. Additionally, due to the dynamic approach of the proposed roadmap, it also contains a potentially wide reach; it can be implemented not just in Myanmar but also in countries that share similarities in EV manufacturing capabilities, market shares, and the level of public acceptance.

5.3. Forecasting the Impact of Myanmar’s Proposed EV Roadmap: Scenario Analysis

A quantitative forecast using a scenario-based approach was developed to estimate the possible national benefits resulting from the use of the proposed EV roadmap (

Table 7. Forecasting table of the impact of Myanmar’s proposed EV roadmap.

Indicator	Business-as-Usual (BAU)	Moderate Scenario	Optimistic Scenario
EV share of total fleet (%)	2.5%	15%	30%
GHG emissions reduction (Mt CO2e)	0.3 Mt	2.1 Mt	4.5 Mt
Annual fuel import savings (USD)	42 million	285 million	610 million
EV sector employment opportunities	5000	21,000	45,000
AQI reduction in Yangon	Negligible	15 points	35 points
Total EVs on road by 2035	40,000	280,000	600,000

). This method sets out three trajectories for implementation: a Business-as-Usual (BAU) trajectory, a Moderate Transition, and an Optimistic Transformation. The forecast focuses on the key impact areas, which are the EV market share, GHG emissions reduction, fuel import savings, employment generation, and the improvement of urban air quality by 2035.

The estimates indicate that Myanmar can reduce over 4.5 million tons of CO₂e, save over half a billion USD in fuel imports, and create over 45,000 green jobs by 2035 under a very optimistic implementation scenario. Significant co-benefits, in economic and environmental terms, will occur under even a moderately optimistic prediction of the trajectory of the roadmap’s implementation. This includes an improvement in urban air quality, which is particularly urgent. For instance, one of the most polluted cities in the world is Yangon.

With a modular and demand-driven EV strategy, Myanmar can achieve its potential as a flexible player in the transport transition of ASEAN, informed by national infrastructure realities and financial constraints. This shows how the deployment scenario could achieve climate, energy security, and industrial resilience-related benefits under the proposed roadmap.

6. Conclusions

Myanmar’s transition toward electric mobility represents more than a technological shift. It signifies a comprehensive systemic transformation that intersects with environmental imperatives, energy security, socioeconomic equity, and regional competitiveness. This study adopted an integrative perspective that moved beyond isolated variables, illustrating the interdependence of environmental, economic, infrastructural, and policy factors in shaping the country’s EV landscape. As such, the paper emphasizes that isolated interventions such as duty exemptions or pilot charging projects are insufficient without broader policy coherence and institutional alignment.

The analysis identified three critical imperatives propelling the transition. Myanmar’s escalating climate vulnerability and worsening urban air pollution necessitate a swift shift to low-emission transport solutions. Its dependence on imported fossil fuels exposes the national economy to global price shocks, making domestically powered EVs a strategic choice for energy resilience. Additionally, regional neighbors such as Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia are aggressively pursuing EV manufacturing and adoption; without timely and strategic engagement, Myanmar risks exclusion from evolving regional value chains.

Nonetheless, the country faces deeply embedded systemic barriers. Infrastructural deficits, particularly in electricity generation, transmission, and charging infrastructure, pose substantial limitations. Political instability and regulatory uncertainty further erode investor confidence and policy continuity. Socioeconomic barriers, including low income levels, limited consumer awareness, and inadequate financial instruments, inhibit widespread adoption. Although symbolically important, current government initiatives remain fragmented and lack the institutional depth needed to catalyze systemic change. As of 2024, only two major EV policies have been officially issued: the National EV Import Regulation (2022) and the Yangon Charging Pilot Initiative (2023). However, both policies lack subnational implementation strategies and do not include dedicated budgetary allocations [21,26].

This opinion paper proposes a cohesive, values-based policy roadmap to address these challenges. Strengthening regulatory frameworks, establishing enforceable EV policies, and aligning national standards with regional guidelines can offer predictability and attract investment. Simultaneously, grid modernization efforts must be pursued alongside renewable energy integration and decentralized solutions, such as microgrids and solar-based charging hubs, especially in underserved rural regions. Financial inclusivity, through subsidized loans, scrappage-and-retrofit schemes, and consumer protection mechanisms, is essential to make EVs accessible beyond affluent urban segments.

Equally important is the development of local capacity. Technical and vocational education systems should be updated to include EV-specific skills, while industrial policies must support the growth of domestic manufacturing and battery recycling ecosystems. Regional collaboration, particularly through ASEAN platforms, can enable shared learning, the harmonization of standards, and the pooling of financial and technological resources.

This paper also advocates a paradigm shift in how EV policies are conceptualized. Rather than viewing EVs solely as a private commodity for urban elites, policymakers should frame electric mobility within a broader mobility justice agenda. Inclusive, multimodal approaches such as the deployment of e-bikes, solar tuk-tuks, and electrified public transit are necessary to meet the transportation needs of rural populations, students, and informal workers. A system-wide lens is essential to avoid reinforcing existing inequalities.

While this study comprehensively reviews Myanmar’s EV ecosystem, it is based on secondary data. Future research should incorporate mixed-methods designs, including stakeholder interviews, consumer surveys, and geospatial mapping, to provide a more nuanced understanding of localized barriers and opportunities. Longitudinal research is also needed to evaluate the effectiveness of evolving policy instruments and infrastructure investments over time.

In sum, Myanmar stands at a pivotal moment. If managed strategically, the transition to electric mobility can reduce emissions, improve public health, enhance energy security, and stimulate green industrial growth. Achieving this, however, requires visionary leadership, institutional resilience, and inclusive policymaking that reflects the diverse realities of its citizens. By aligning its mobility strategy with broader sustainability and development goals, Myanmar has the potential to serve as a model for other developing nations navigating the path toward low-carbon transport futures.