A Passive Experiment on Route Bus Speed Change Patterns to Clarify Electrification Benefits

Abstract

In addition to the widely recognized benefits of reducing carbon emissions and protecting the environment, the authors believe that bus electrification has potential advantages in enhancing driving safety, improving passenger comfort, and reducing driver fatigue—areas that have not yet been sufficiently studied and emphasized. Safety and comfort are fundamental objectives in the continuous development of transportation systems. They are directly and closely related to both passengers and drivers and are among the top priorities when individuals choose their mode of transportation. Therefore, these aspects deserve broader and more in-depth attention and research. This study aims to identify the potential advantages of route bus electrification in terms of safety and comfort. The results of a passive experiment on the speed profile of buses operating on actual routes are presented here. Firstly, we focus on the acceleration/deceleration at the starting/stopping stops, specifically for regular-route buses, and obtain the following information: I. Starting acceleration from a bus stop is particularly strong in the second half of the acceleration process, being suitable for motor-driven vehicles. II. The features of the stopping deceleration at a bus stop are “high intensity” and “low dispersion”, with the latter enabling the refinement of regenerative settings and significantly lowering electricity economy during electrification. And we compare the speed profile of an electric bus with those of a diesel bus and obtain the following information: III. Motor-driven vehicles offer the advantages of “high acceleration performance” and “no gear shifting”, making them particularly suitable for the high-intensity acceleration required when route buses depart from stations. This not only simplifies driving operations but also enhances lane-changing safety. And by calculating and analyzing the jerk amount, we could quantitatively demonstrate the comfortable driving experience while riding on this type of bus where there is no shock due to gear shifting. IV. While the “high acceleration performance” of motor-driven vehicles produces “individual differences in the speed change patterns”, this does not translate to “individual differences in electricity consumption”, owing to the characteristics of this type of vehicle. With engine-driven vehicles, measures such as “slow acceleration” and “shift up early” are strongly encouraged to realize eco-driving, and any driving style that deviates from these measures is avoided. However, with motor-driven vehicles, the driver does not need to be too concerned about the speed change patterns during acceleration. This characteristic also suggests a benefit in terms of the electrification of buses.

1. Introduction

In recent years, global climate change has become increasingly severe, with frequent occurrences of extreme weather events. Phenomena such as glacier melting and rising sea levels have escalated into global crises, with greenhouse gas emissions—particularly carbon dioxide—being one of the primary causes of this issue [1,2,3]. At the same time, the consumption of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal is far exceeding their formation rate, leading to an increasing risk of resource shortages [4,5,6]. The interconnection between energy consumption and environmental change has made global warming and fossil fuel shortages intertwined issues, positioning them as central challenges for sustainable development worldwide [7,8].

Concerns over climate change and fossil fuel depletion have driven global efforts to reduce carbon emissions and conserve energy [9,10]. The transportation sector, responsible for 25% of global CO₂ emissions, plays a key role, especially road transport [11,12]. To meet the Paris Agreement targets, significant reductions are needed in this sector [13,14]. Consequently, vehicle electrification has been accelerating worldwide [15,16].

At present, the development of electric vehicles has achieved remarkable progress, with key technologies such as lithium batteries and energy replenishment making critical advancements in recent years [17,18,19]. Meanwhile, fuel cell engineering technology and commercialization, which are crucial to the electrification of heavy-duty vehicles, are also continuously progressing [20,21]. The development of renewable energy has also driven the progress of vehicle electrification. The large-scale adoption of renewable energy further enhances the ability of electric vehicles to reduce overall CO₂ emissions. Conversely, the advancement of electric vehicles can also promote the development of renewable energy. In addressing the issue of intermittent power generation from renewable sources, the batteries of electric vehicles can serve as energy storage devices, working in coordination with the power grid to stabilize the output of solar and wind energy. This, in turn, increases the share of renewable energy in the grid and facilitates its further development [22,23,24].

In previous related studies, most research has focused on energy-saving, carbon reduction, and environmental benefits of electrification. Extensive and in-depth studies have been conducted on topics such as energy consumption comparisons between electric vehicles and internal combustion engine vehicles [25,26,27,28], differences and effectiveness of eco-driving strategies [29,30,31], and energy consumption comparisons of hybrid and electric vehicles under real-world driving conditions [32].

Additionally, a smaller number of studies have examined other aspects of electric bus adoption, such as scheduling, battery performance, and charging speed [33], vehicle availability and failure rates [34], as well as route planning and energy management [35], highlighting additional advantages of bus electrification.

The findings of these past studies have significantly contributed to the advancement of vehicle electrification. However, the authors have observed that the potential benefits of electric bus adoption in terms of enhancing driving safety, reducing driver fatigue, and improving passenger comfort have not yet received sufficient attention or exploration. Safety and comfort are critical aspects of transportation development, directly and closely related to both passengers and drivers. They are also among the highest-priority considerations for individuals when evaluating electric transportation options. Therefore, these factors deserve broader and more in-depth research.

Based on this perspective, the present study focuses on the suitability between specific driving conditions and vehicle electrification as its central theme. Specifically, it investigates how the transition from internal combustion vehicles (ICVs) to electric vehicles (EVs) affects factors such as powertrain configuration and acceleration performance and how these changes influence driving safety, driver fatigue, and passenger comfort under certain driving conditions. As previously discussed, the benefits of vehicle electrification in terms of energy savings, carbon reduction, and environmental protection have been extensively studied in much research work [27,28,31]; therefore, this study does not delve deeply into these aspects.

Different types of vehicles operate under vastly different driving conditions, which implies that different usage scenarios demand varying vehicle performance characteristics. For example, urban transit buses operating in busy city areas frequently start from bus stops due to passengers boarding and alighting. In such cases, slow and smooth acceleration is required to prevent passengers from losing balance or experiencing discomfort. However, once the bus merges into a high-speed traffic lane, rapid acceleration is necessary to avoid rear-end collisions with other vehicles. This situation highlights the dual requirement for high acceleration performance during lane merging (to prevent rear-end collisions) and smooth acceleration when starting (to ensure passenger safety and comfort).

At the same time, the powertrain systems of EVs differ significantly from those of conventional ICVs, leading to notable changes in vehicle performance due to electrification. In terms of powertrain composition, EVs primarily consist of batteries and electric motors, whereas ICVs rely on internal combustion engines and transmissions. Consequently, EVs exhibit significant advantages in acceleration performance (particularly at low speeds), precision in torque output control, and smooth acceleration due to the absence of a transmission system.

Ideally, the performance changes introduced by electrification should precisely align with the performance requirements of specific driving conditions. If the changes brought about by electrification contradict the demands of a particular driving scenario, efficiency may decline, making the adoption of EVs impractical. Conversely, if electrification results in excessive performance improvements that far exceed the requirements of the driving scenario, it will lead to unnecessary resource consumption, making such an approach suboptimal for the widespread adoption of EVs.

By investigating the suitability of electrification for specific driving conditions (particularly speed change patterns), we can better understand the benefits of vehicle electrification beyond the widely discussed macro-level impacts on carbon reduction, energy conservation, and environmental protection. Specifically, electrification may enhance driving safety, reduce driver fatigue, and improve passenger comfort in certain applications. Furthermore, the authors believe that clarifying the benefits of electrification in specific driving scenarios, beyond the general discussion of carbon reduction and energy efficiency, can further promote the adoption and expansion of EVs across various transportation applications.

The potential benefits of electric vehicle adoption, such as energy savings, emission reduction, and increased renewable energy utilization through power storage technology, have been extensively discussed in numerous studies. However, there has been relatively limited discussion on the impact of EV adoption in terms of enhancing driving safety, improving passenger comfort, and reducing driver fatigue. These previously overlooked benefits may have a positive impact on various societal groups.

Therefore, the objective of this study is to analyze speed data obtained through experimental investigations to achieve the following: first, to clarify the differences in speed variation patterns between roads near bus stops and general roadways; and second, to identify the differences in driving performance between motor-driven electric buses and engine-driven conventional fuel-powered buses due to their distinct powertrain characteristics. Ultimately, based on these differences in speed patterns and driving performance, this study aims to elucidate the potential benefits of bus electrification in terms of increasing driving safety, enhancing passenger comfort, and mitigating driver fatigue.

Specifically, this study focuses on a route bus that operates commercially within Tokyo [36]. EVs are said to be particularly suitable for public transportation, such as buses, because they generally have a low carbonization effect and contribute to an improved driving environment, with minimal impact on the surrounding area [37,38,39]. In addition to these benefits, as mentioned earlier, the authors consider the speed change pattern, which is unique to regular route buses, to be particularly well-suited for EVs. Therefore, this paper reports on the results of a passive experiment analyzing the speed change patterns of commercially operating buses on real regular routes, conducted to further clarify the benefits of route bus electrification.

For example, the speed variation patterns of route buses indicate that high-intensity acceleration is required after departing from a bus stop. This is because route buses need to rapidly accelerate to cruising speed to ensure driving safety and reduce the risk of rear-end collisions after lane changes. This characteristic aligns well with the superior acceleration performance and gearless operation of electric buses. Therefore, the electrification of route buses can enhance driving safety. Improving driving safety is a potential benefit of electrification that has not been widely discussed. Additional benefits include improved passenger comfort and reduced driver fatigue. This study provides a detailed analysis of these potential benefits based on passive experimental data.

In the first part (Section 3), the results of the analysis focused on acceleration when starting from a bus stop and deceleration when stopping, which is unique to route buses, are summarized. Through this analysis, the authors aim to highlight the specific driving performance requirements of route buses based on their operational characteristics. In the second part (Section 4), the results of the comparative analysis between the speed change pattern of an electric bus, which was chosen as an example of a motor-driven vehicle, and a diesel bus, which was chosen as an example of an engine-driven vehicle, are summarized. Through this analysis, the authors aim to further clarify the suitability of electrification for route buses in terms of improving driving safety, reducing driver fatigue, and enhancing passenger comfort. Additionally, based on the operational characteristics of route buses, this study proposes recommendations for regenerative braking settings and driving strategies specifically tailored for electric route buses.

2. Passive Experiment Method

2.1. Regular Routes and Buses Being Measured

The regular route studied in this passive experiment is the “To 05-2” line of the Toei Bus operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation, Japan [36]. The route shown in Figure 1 connects Tokyo Station Marunouchi South Exit and Tokyo Big Sight. The return trip distance is 17 km, and it takes approximately 80 min to complete.

Both electric buses [40] and diesel buses [41] are used on this route and have been measured. Their basic specifications are listed in

Table 1. Specifications of tested vehicles.

	Name	Toyota Fuel Cell Bus SORA
	Capacity	79 persons
	Motor	226 kW/670 Nm
	Transmission	Fixed
	Driver	A, B, C, D
	Name	Mitsubishi Fuso MP38FK
	Capacity	78 persons
	Engine	199 kW/785 Nm
	Transmission	Six-speed AT
	Driver	E, F, G, H

.

2.2. Passive Experiment Period and Equipment Used

In this study, the data collection process lasted approximately four weeks. The first two weeks were dedicated to preparatory experiments, including the design and development of the measurement device, preliminary measurements, and accuracy adjustments. The formal experiments were conducted during the final two weeks, and all data used in this study were obtained from this period.

During the formal experiments, the main measurement device was securely fixed inside the vehicle cabin, while the signal reception antenna was positioned near the window. The measurement equipment operated on an independent power source, ensuring continuous operation throughout the day regardless of whether the vehicle was running. From early morning departure from the depot to evening return, one to two experiment monitors were always present on the vehicle. Their responsibilities included real-time monitoring of the collected data, recording operational conditions, and handling unexpected situations if necessary.

An electric bus was chosen as an example of a motor-driven vehicle, and a diesel bus was chosen as an example of an engine-driven vehicle for speed measurements. Both types of buses run on the route. The measurements for the former were conducted on the journeys taken between 14 and 17 December 2021 by drivers A, B, C, and D, while the measurements for the latter were conducted on the journeys taken between 22 and 25 December 2021 by drivers E, F, G, and H.

We prepared a GPS-type device ourselves that was used for measuring speed (Figure 2). This equipment consisted of an antenna, receiver (GPS module circuit board: UBLOX/C099-F9P [42]), and smartphone. It was devised to realize higher precision than common GPS devices through reference station compensation. Figure 3 shows an example of the measured data.

3. Passive Experiment Results and Analysis Focusing on the Acceleration/Deceleration of Route Buses When Starting and Stopping at Bus Stops

3.1. Separation and Extraction of Different Types of Starts and Stops (Bus Stop/Traffic Signal/Other)

As the analysis in this paper focuses on the acceleration when starting from a bus stop and the deceleration when stopping at a bus stop, such information must be separated and extracted from the speed measurement data. Herein, we discuss how that has been achieved.

Table 2. Details of measured data separation (2–14 December).

	Bus Stop	Signal	Total
(a) The number of total trips	-	-	35
(b) The number of starts and stops (≧100 m)	31	15	-
(c) The number of starts and stops (≧100 m, ≧30 km/h)	15 (68%)	7 (32%)	-

shows the result of performing this separation on the second bus (departing from Tokyo Station Marunouchi South Exit) on 14 December, and

Table 3. Details of measured data separation (14 December).

	Bus Stop	Signal	Total
(a) The number of total trips	-	-	395
(b) The number of starts and stops (≧100 m)	295	165	-
(c) The number of starts and stops (≧100 m, ≧30 km/h)	118 (61%)	75 (39%)	-

shows the same separation performed on all the buses on the same day. First, the continuously measured speed data are separated into individual trips, each consisting of one continuous trip from start to stop (trip number (a) in the same table). Next, the starts and stops of all the trips are categorized into starting from/stopping at a bus stop, starting from/stopping at a traffic signal, and other starts/stops through visual examination of the GPS travel trajectory. After that, only the starts/stops at bus stops and starts/stops at traffic signals were extracted; those that were to be affected by the surrounding traffic (e.g., traffic jams) were excluded. More specifically, all the trips that were less than 100 m were removed first (remaining start/stop number: (b) in the same table). Then, those wherein the speed at the end of acceleration or the start of deceleration was less than 30 km/h were excluded (remaining start/stop number: (c) in the same table).

The following analysis is performed on the data extracted through the operation discussed above. Note that the number of start accelerations/stop decelerations at bus stops, unique to regular route buses, exceeds the number of start accelerations/stop decelerations at traffic signals.

3.2. Comparative Analysis of Start Acceleration at Bus Stops and Start Acceleration at Traffic Signals

Figure 4 shows all speed change pattern measurements for the start of acceleration at bus stops and the start of acceleration at traffic signals by Driver A. Moreover, Figure 5 (Driver A) shows the same data summarized as the acceleration values for each speed region. In the first half of acceleration (in the low-speed region), the start of acceleration at bus stops is weaker than the start of acceleration at traffic signals. The main reasons for this are the consideration given to preventing passengers from falling and checking the flow of traffic in the driving lane. Meanwhile, during the second half of acceleration (in the medium-speed region), the start of acceleration at bus stops is stronger. The reason for this was the desire to reach cruising speed quickly after entering the driving lane to prevent rear-end collisions.

Generally, the acceleration performance of motor-driven vehicles is superior to that of engine-driven vehicles. Therefore, the characteristics of start acceleration at bus stops discussed above are considered more suitable for the former than the latter. A similar analysis was performed on the operations of every driver to verify the generality of this phenomenon (Figure 5 (Driver B–H)). The results remained the same.

3.3. Comparative Analysis of Stop Deceleration at Bus Stops and Stop Deceleration at Traffic Signals

Figure 6 shows all the speed change pattern measurements for stop decelerations at bus stops and stop decelerations at traffic signals by Driver A. Additionally, Figure 7 (Driver A) displays the same data reorganized as the accelerations (decelerations) according to each speed region. During the first half of deceleration (the high-speed region), the strength of deceleration to stop at bus stops (still in the driving lane at this point) and that of deceleration to stop at traffic signals were the same. However, during the second half of deceleration, the increase in the strength of the former (having left the driving lane at this point) was notable. This is because, in general, the distance to a bus stop after leaving the driving lane is short, requiring faster deceleration to come to a stop. A similar analysis was performed for every driver to verify the generality of this phenomenon (Figure 7 (Driver B–H)). The results were the same for all cases.

Next, we compare the degrees of dispersion between stop decelerations at bus stops and stop decelerations at traffic signals. From Figure 6 above, the former has a lower degree of dispersion in the speed change pattern than the latter. Figure 8 shows the same data reorganized as the probability distribution of the average acceleration (deceleration). The same phenomenon can also be observed in normal distribution curves and standard deviations in this figure. This was because stop decelerations at bus stops tend to be less easily affected by the traffic, which makes it possible for the drivers to decelerate out of their own volition, resulting in similar speed change patterns. Meanwhile, we concluded that there are discrepancies in stop decelerations at traffic signals because these are easily affected by the traffic.

The examination in this section elucidated the characteristics of deceleration for route buses, namely the fact that there is “strong deceleration when stopping at bus stops” and a “low degree of dispersion when stopping at bus stops”. The latter has the potential to facilitate the narrowing down of the regeneration setting, which contributes to improving electricity consumption during electrification to a significant degree.

4. Passive Experiment Results and Comparative Analysis of Speed Change Patterns Between Electric Buses and Diesel Buses

4.1. Comparative Analysis of Acceleration Intensity at the Start

First, we focused on the acceleration when starting from a bus stop that is unique to route buses. Figure 9 shows the compilation of the speed change pattern for every driver (electric bus: Driver A, B, C, and D/diesel bus: Driver E, F, G, and H). Moreover, Figure 10a shows the same data as the acceleration intensity for each speed region. One can observe that at every speed band (particularly at 30 km/h or more), the acceleration intensity of electric buses is higher than that of diesel buses. Although the main reason for this result is the difference in the output characteristics of the motor and the engine, low acceleration (acceleration work) applied on diesel buses to reduce gear-shifting shock revealed during separate interviews is also assumed to influence the results.

Next, acceleration data when starting at traffic signals were added, and a similar analysis was performed. This yielded similar results, as shown in Figure 10b.

In addition to the phenomena discussed above, the stalling of diesel buses at medium speeds (10–15 km/h) and large individual differences in electric buses among the drivers (high degree of dispersion) were observed in the measurement results. These are analyzed in detail in the following sections.

4.2. Analysis of the Negative Impact of Gear Shifting During the Start of Acceleration of Diesel Buses

As mentioned earlier, the acceleration of diesel buses slowed in the 10–15 km/h speed band. This was due to the interruption of acceleration caused by gear-shifting operations. Figure 11a shows a diagram representing the acceleration–speed profile during the start of acceleration that was prepared to clarify this phenomenon. It shows the interruption of acceleration in the diesel buses, which does not exist in the electric buses. In the previous sections, we pointed out that, as a characteristic of the start/stop acceleration unique to route buses, strong acceleration occurs during the latter half of acceleration (the medium-to-high speed region) to quickly reach cruising speed to avoid a rear-end collision by the vehicle in the rear. As the abovementioned speed band corresponds to the initial stage of this acceleration, one can claim that an electric bus, wherein acceleration does not slow, has characteristics that facilitate easy driver operation.

Gear shifting also makes riding more uncomfortable. The change pattern of the jerk amount was also compiled in Figure 11b to quantitatively understand this phenomenon [43,44,45]. While both types of buses had the same amount of jerk on startup, the deterioration of jerk when shifting gears in the diesel bus was notable.

The high acceleration performance and riding comfort can be said to be the primary advantages of motor-driven vehicles, and this phenomenon was reconfirmed in these actual measurement data. Moreover, we would like to add that many drivers agreed with these benefits.

4.3. Comparative Analysis of Individual Differences in the Speed Change Pattern When Starting

As indicated earlier, there are considerable differences among individuals in terms of the speed change patterns when starting electric buses. This phenomenon was particularly notable in the speed band of 30 km/h or more. Herein, we will proceed with a detailed analysis of this phenomenon.

Figure 12 shows the averages of the acceleration strength in each speed band as a bar graph, with the addition of the maximum and minimum values. This shows a particularly large discrepancy in the high-speed range of the electric buses. Figure 13 reorganizes the appearance frequencies of the acceleration average as a distribution diagram. Furthermore, individual differences can be recognized here.

The reason why the individual differences in the speed change history become notable during the acceleration of electric buses is because of the high acceleration performance of this type of bus. Meanwhile, the limitations in the acceleration performance of diesel buses result in nearly identical driving operations among the drivers, making it more difficult for individual differences to occur.

4.4. Comparative Analysis of the Speed Change Pattern When Stopping

Figure 14 compiles the speed change patterns of all drivers during deceleration while stopping at bus stops. No differences in behavior between the two types of buses, similar to those observed during startup, were identified.

5. Conclusions

The findings obtained through this study are summarized as follows:

I.

Regarding the start of acceleration at bus stops, unique to regular route buses, it was pointed out that the start of acceleration at bus stops is weaker than the start of acceleration at traffic signals during the first half of acceleration (in the low-speed region), and the reasons for this were clarified. Furthermore, it was elucidated that during the second half of the start of acceleration at bus stops (in the medium-speed region), acceleration is stronger, and the reason for this was due to the desire to reach cruising speed quickly to prevent rear-end collisions. Generally, the acceleration performance of motor-driven vehicles is superior to that of engine-driven vehicles, and it is widely understood that this characteristic is well-liked by bus drivers. Moreover, the difference in performance was verified, primarily during the second half of the start of acceleration at bus stops (in the medium-speed region).

II.

This study suggests that the observed stronger acceleration of electric buses during lane changes may be attributed to three key factors: (1) Higher torque and a wider high-torque operating range of electric motors, which provide more robust acceleration capabilities. (2) The absence of gear shifting during acceleration in electric vehicles, which eliminates power interruptions caused by gear changes in conventional vehicles, resulting in smoother and more consistent acceleration performance. (3) A more favourable driving experience for bus drivers, as they can execute high-intensity acceleration more easily without concerns about the shift shocks and engine noise associated with conventional vehicles. This allows drivers to focus on safe driving and utilize the vehicle’s acceleration potential more effectively, when necessary, without worrying about the negative impacts of aggressive acceleration on passenger comfort.

III.

Regarding the stop deceleration at bus stops, unique to regular route buses, the characteristics of “strong deceleration when stopping at bus stops” and a “low degree of dispersion when stopping at bus stops”, as well as their reasons, were elucidated. It was pointed out that the latter has the potential to facilitate the narrowing down of the regeneration setting, which contributes to improving electricity consumption during electrification to a significant degree.

IV.

We concluded that the “no gear shifting” characteristic makes acceleration easy when departing from a bus stop in addition to the “high acceleration performance” of motor-driven vehicles. Furthermore, by calculating and analyzing the jerk amount, we could quantitatively demonstrate the comfortable driving experience while riding on this type of bus where there is no shock due to gear shifting.

V.

While the “high acceleration performance” of motor-driven vehicles produces “individual differences in the speed change patterns”, this does not translate to “individual differences in electricity consumption”, owing to the characteristics of this type of vehicle [30,46]. With engine-driven vehicles, measures such as “slow acceleration” are strongly encouraged to realize eco-driving, and any driving style that deviates from these measures is avoided. However, with motor-driven vehicles, the driver does not need to be too concerned about the speed history during acceleration. This characteristic also suggests a benefit in terms of the electrification of buses.

VI.

The measurement device used in this study requires both satellite and network signals. Therefore, the proposed passive experiment method cannot be applied in areas where satellite signals are disrupted or unavailable, such as tunnels and high-rise building areas, or in locations without network coverage. Additionally, the electric vehicle used in this study (the fuel cell bus SORA) has certain limitations compared to conventional vehicles (diesel buses) in terms of driving range and refuelling. The driving range of the fuel cell bus is approximately 200 km, with a hydrogen refuelling time of about 15 min [47,48]. While this design is generally sufficient to meet the daily operational requirements of the target route, it is still inferior to traditional vehicles such as diesel buses. Moreover, it is important to note that hydrogen refuelling stations are significantly fewer in number compared to conventional fuelling stations, and the stability of the hydrogen supply remains an open question. Therefore, improving the refuelling infrastructure is a critical challenge in the electrification of public transportation.

This study demonstrates that, in addition to the widely recognized advantages of reducing carbon emissions and protecting the environment, the electrification of buses has previously overlooked potential benefits, such as enhancing driving safety, improving passenger comfort, and reducing driver fatigue. These findings may have positive implications for various societal groups. For passengers, these findings can help them better understand the technological advancements and improve their experience of public transportation, potentially encouraging more active use of public transit. For bus operators, a comprehensive understanding of the diverse benefits of electric bus adoption can help them reduce safety risks and labor costs while improving service quality. For electric bus manufacturers, these findings can be leveraged to highlight “enhanced safety”, “improved passenger comfort”, and “reduced driver fatigue” as new market advantages, fostering differentiated competition, strengthening brand image, and expanding market share. For government agencies, incorporating these new findings into policy discussions can lead to more comprehensive policymaking and facilitate greater acceptance among key stakeholders, including passengers, drivers, and labor unions. Additionally, a clearer understanding of the long-term benefits of electric buses—such as reducing traffic accidents, improving traffic efficiency, lowering healthcare costs, and increasing operational efficiency—can provide stronger justification for public financial support, encouraging government agencies to prioritize electric bus projects in budget allocation.