Interdisciplinary Analysis of Social Acceptance Regarding Electric Vehicles with a Focus on Charging Infrastructure and Driving Range in Germany †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Greenhouse Gas in Germany’s Transport Sector
1.2. EU Policies Regarding CO2 Emissions
1.3. Applied Methodology and Research Question
1.4. Structure of the Paper
2. Barriers of Social Acceptance
2.1. Energy Storage
2.2. Insecurity in Dealing with Accidents
2.3. Driving Range of Current Electric Vehicles
2.4. Charging Time of Modern Electric Vehicles
2.5. Charging Infrastructure
2.5.1. Charging Infrastructure—Current State
Germany
Worldwide
2.5.2. Geographic Characteristics
- Conformity with road traffic law.
- Consideration of monument zones.
- Visibility, busy, and well-signposted roads.
- Publicly accessible locations at all times.
- Accessible locations in all seasons (especially in winter).
- Safe locations with night-time lighting.
- Access to low voltage or medium voltage network depending on charger type.
- Wherever possible, charging stations approachable from both directions, no one-way streets.
- Preference for major roads to protect residential areas.
- Reliable mobile network or LAN cable for connection to a backend system.
2.5.3. Target Group
- Citizens, inbound commuter, and local companies:
- Tourists:
- Through traffic:
2.5.4. Charging Station
Conductive Charging
Inductive Charging
Cost Comparison of Charging Stations
2.5.5. Access and Payment
- RFID card:
- Smartphone (App/SMS):
- Giro/credit card:
- Cash:
2.5.6. Pricing
2.5.7. Backend and Roaming
2.5.8. Authorization Process
3. Development in the Social Acceptance of Electric Vehicles
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Annual Mileage [km] | Electricity Mix of 2019 | Renewable Power | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Nissan Micra [a] | Nissan Juke [a] | Nissan Micra [a] | Nissan Juke [a] | |
5001–10,000 | 16.5–33 | 6.5–13 | 4–8 | 2.5–5 |
10,001–15,000 | 11–16.5 | 4.3–6.5 | 2.7–4 | 1.7–2.5 |
15,001–20,000 | 8.3–11 | 3.3–4.3 | 2–2.7 | 1.3–1.7 |
Annual Mileage [km] | Percentage of Population [%] |
---|---|
0–5000 | 12.97 |
5001–10,000 | 29.06 |
10,001–15,000 | 29.53 |
15,001–20,000 | 15.06 |
more than 20,000 | 13.37 |
Vehicle Model | Sales Volume | Battery Capacity [kWh] |
---|---|---|
Renault Zoe | 83,356 | 41 |
Tesla Model 3 | 63,086 | 55 |
Hyundai Kona EV | 37,202 | 64 |
VW e-Golf | 31,326 | 35.8 |
Audio e-tron 55 Sportback quattro | 30,181 | 86.5 |
VW ID.3 | 28,839 | 62 |
Peugeot 208 EV | 28,137 | 50 |
Kia Niro EV | 27,049 | 64 |
Nissan Leaf | 26,366 | 40 |
BMW i3 | 20,647 | 42.2 |
VW e-Up! | 18,176 | 36.8 |
smart EQ fortwo | 16,226 | 17.6 |
Category | Price Range [€] | Average Driving Range [km] |
---|---|---|
1 | 20,000–29,999 | 245 |
2 | 30,000–39,999 | 374 |
3 | >40,000 | 438 |
Charging Current | DC | AC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Charging capacity [kW] | 50 | 22 | 11 | 3.7 | 2.3 |
Charging time [h] | 0.67 | 6.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 17.4 |
Standard | Content |
---|---|
IEC 1 61851 [102] | EV 3 conductive charging system - Part 1: General requirements - Part 21-1: EV on-board charger EMC requirements for conductive connection to AC/DC supply - Part 21-2: EV requirements for conductive connection to an AC/DC supply - EMC requirements for off-board EV charging systems - Part 23: DC electric vehicle charging station |
IEC 62196 [103] | Plugs, socket-outlets vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets—Conductive charging of EVs - Part 1: General requirements - Part 2: Dimensional compatibility and interchangeability requirements for AC pin and contact-tube accessories - Part 3: Dimensional compatibility and interchangeability requirements for DC and AC/DC pin and contact-tube vehicle couplers |
IEC 62752 [105] | In-cable control and protection device for mode 2 charging of electric road vehicles |
IEC 62893 [106] | Charging cables for EVs for rated voltages up to and including 0.6/1 kV |
ISO 2 15118 [104] | Road vehicles - Vehicle to grid communication interface |
ISO 17409 [107] | Electrically propelled road vehicles - Conductive power transfer - Safety requirements |
IEC 60364 [108] | Low-voltage electrical installations - Part 7-722: Requirements for special installations or locations—Supplies for EVs |
Standard | Content |
---|---|
ISO 1 19363 [113] | Electrically propelled road vehicles - Magnetic field wireless power transfer - Safety and interoperability requirements |
IEC 2 61980 [114] | EV 4 wireless power transfer systems - Part 1: General requirements - Part 2: Specific requirements for communication between electric road vehicle and infrastructure - Part 3: Specific requirements for the magnetic field wireless power transfer systems |
IEC 62764 [116] | Measurement procedures of magnetic field levels generated by electronic and electrical equipment in the automotive environment with respect to human exposure - Part 1: Low-frequency magnetic fields |
CISPR 3 11 [115] | Industrial, scientific and medical equipment - Radio-frequency disturbance characteristics - Limits and methods of measurement |
ISO 15118 [104] | Road vehicles - Vehicle to grid communication interface - Part 1: General information and use-case definition - Part 2: Network and application protocol requirements - Part 8: Physical layer and data link layer requirements for wireless communication |
WCS 1 | Wallbox | AC Charger | DC Charger | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Charging capacity [kW] | 3.7 | >3.7 | 11 to 22 | 50 | 150 |
Charging points | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 8 |
Hardware [€] | 3205 | 450 to 1200 | 2500 to 8000 | 15,000 to 30,000 | n.a. |
Grid connection costs [€] | up to 2000 | up to 2000 | up to 2000 | 5000 to 15,000 | n.a. |
Approval [€] | up to 1000 | up to 1000 | 500 to 1000 | 1500 to 15,000 | n.a. |
Installation/Signage [€] | up to 1000 | up to 1000 | 1500 to 3000 | 3500 to 20,000 | n.a. |
Investment (CAPEX 2) [€] | 7205 | 4450 to 5200 | 6500 to 14,000 | 25,000 to 80,000 | 500,000 to 650,000 |
Service/Backend (OPEX 3) [€/a] | 1000 | 1000 | 1500 | 3000 | n.a. |
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Burkert, A.; Fechtner, H.; Schmuelling, B. Interdisciplinary Analysis of Social Acceptance Regarding Electric Vehicles with a Focus on Charging Infrastructure and Driving Range in Germany. World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12, 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010025
Burkert A, Fechtner H, Schmuelling B. Interdisciplinary Analysis of Social Acceptance Regarding Electric Vehicles with a Focus on Charging Infrastructure and Driving Range in Germany. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2021; 12(1):25. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010025
Chicago/Turabian StyleBurkert, Amelie, Heiko Fechtner, and Benedikt Schmuelling. 2021. "Interdisciplinary Analysis of Social Acceptance Regarding Electric Vehicles with a Focus on Charging Infrastructure and Driving Range in Germany" World Electric Vehicle Journal 12, no. 1: 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010025