Blockchain Application in Internet of Vehicles: Challenges, Contributions and Current Limitations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Motivation and Problem Statement
1.2. Blockchain Value in IoV
1.3. Contributions
- A detailed taxonomy of the range of blockchain application areas in the field of IoV.
- A discussion of the observed IoV challenges of different segments and scenarios of the smart grid domain with the goal of understanding why blockchain should be used and how it may contribute to solving such challenges.
- A research agenda around the current limitations of blockchain technology in the field of IoV and future research directions are presented.
1.4. Article Structure
2. Background: Blockchain for the IoV
- The first layer (i.e., the sensing layer) comprises all the sensors within the vehicles, which collect data and identify particular events of interest such as driving patterns, vehicle circumstances, weather conditions, etc.
- The second piece (i.e., the communication layer) enables various wireless communication modes (e.g., V2V and V2I). The communication layer ensures that existing and future networks are always connected (such as GSM, Wi-Fi, LTE and Bluetooth, among others).
- The third layer (i.e., computing) is in charge of storing, analyzing, processing and making decisions regarding various circumstances in the IoV network. This layer also provides data computing services.
- Finally, the application layer is the highest level of the IoV and may provide consumers with a range of vehicle services.
3. Review Method
- Planning, which defines aspects such as the need for the research, the review protocol and research questions;
- Conducting, during which the previously established protocol is carried out;
- Reporting, which presents the final analysis to answer each research question.
3.1. Planning the Review
3.1.1. Study Goal and Systematic Literature Review Questions
- Identify the main problems in the IoV where blockchain technology is applied, considering current challenges in the IoV landscape, opportunities for blockchain application and current limitations;
- Discuss findings and provide future research directions.
- SLR.Q1: How can blockchain be applied in smart grids and especially in the IoV concept?
- SLR.Q2: What are the current challenges in the IoV?
- SLR.Q3: What are the opportunities of blockchain in the area of IoV?
- SLR.Q4: What are the limitations of the current research?
3.1.2. Review Protocol
- Search strategy for identification of studies: databases and sources to be searched, included time periods, search terms and keywords, search queries, language restrictions;
- Screening: inclusion/exclusion criteria for studies;
- Validation: pattern recognition and taxonomy creation;
- Data extraction and Synthesis: type of synthesis to be used, representation of data to address review questions.
3.1.3. Search Strategy
3.2. Conducting the Review
3.2.1. Study Locations
3.2.2. Screening
3.2.3. Validation
3.3. Reporting the Review
- Study details including authorship, year, type of paper, publication location and digital object identifier;
- Summary of the study and description of the observed thematic area;
- Main application area;
- Evaluation of the study in terms of research knowledge including the identified problems;
- Proposed solutions/opportunities, study outcomes and study limitations and/or research directions;
- Evaluation of the study in terms of technological knowledge, including concept validation and blockchain network used.
- The study should be sufficiently evaluated in terms of research knowledge;
- The study should be evaluated in terms of technological knowledge.
- Privacy and security;
- Data protection and management;
- P2P energy trading;
- Microgrid management;
- IoV management;
- AI/Machine Learning (ML) and IoV;
- Blockchain performance in the IoV;
- General-purpose studies (e.g., reviews, surveys, etc.).
4. Discussion
4.1. Challenges of IoV-Assisted Smart Grid
4.2. Blockchain Contributions in IoV-Assisted Smart Grid
5. Findings and Future Directions
5.1. Review Findings: Limitations of Using Blockchain in IoV-Assisted Smart Grid
5.2. Observations and Future Directions
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Search Queries Submitted in Different Databases
IEEEXplore Database Queries | ||
Query 1 | (“All Metadata”:blockchain) AND (“All Metadata”:energy) | 686 results |
Query 2 | (“All Metadata”:blockchain) AND (“All Metadata”:renewable energy) | 132 results |
Query 3 | (“All Metadata”:blockchain) AND (“All Metadata”:microgrid) | 123 results |
Query 4 | (“All Metadata”:blockchain) AND (“All Metadata”:energy trading) | 132 results |
Query 5 | (“All Metadata”:blockchain AND (“All Metadata”:”vehicle to grid” OR “vehicle-to-grid” OR “Vehicle-to-Grid” OR V2G)) | 71 results |
Query 6 | (“All Metadata”:blockchain AND (“All Metadata”:”vehicle to vehicle” OR “vehicle-to-vehicle” OR “Vehicle-to-Vehicle” OR V2V OR * vehicle OR IoV)) | 64 results |
ScienceDirect Database Queries | ||
Query 1 | blockchain AND energy—in all parts of the document excluding references | 1763 results |
Query 2 | blockchain AND “renewable energy”—in all parts of the document excluding references | 445 results |
Query 3 | blockchain AND microgrid—in all parts of the document excluding references | 230 results |
Query 4 | blockchain AND “energy trading”—in all parts of the document excluding references | 223 results |
Query 5 | blockchain AND (“vehicle to grid” OR “vehicle-to-grid” OR “Vehicle-to-Grid” OR V2G)—in all parts of the document excluding references | 172 results |
Query 6 | blockchain AND (“vehicle to vehicle” OR “vehicle-to-vehicle” OR “Vehicle-to-Vehicle” OR V2V OR * vehicle OR IoV)—in all parts of the document excluding references | 170 results |
SpringerLink Database Queries | ||
Query 1 | with all of the words: blockchain AND energy | 2464 results |
Query 2 | with all of the words: blockchain AND “renewable energy” | 386 results |
Query 3 | with all of the words: blockchain AND microgrid | 102 results |
Query 4 | with all of the words: blockchain AND “energy trading” | 186 results |
Query 5 | with the exact phrase: blockchain AND (“vehicle to vehicle” OR “vehicle-to-vehicle” OR “Vehicle-to-Vehicle” OR V2V) | 37 results |
Query 6 | with the exact phrase: blockchain AND (“vehicle to vehicle” OR “vehicle-to-vehicle” OR “Vehicle-to-Vehicle” OR V2V OR * vehicle OR IoV) | 84 results |
ACM Database Queries | ||
Query 1 | [All: blockchain] AND [All: energy] | 473 results |
Query 2 | [All: blockchain] AND [All: “renewable energy”] | 34 results |
Query 3 | [All: blockchain] AND [All: microgrid] | 24 results |
Query 4 | [All: blockchain] AND [All: “energy trading”] | 30 results |
Query 5 | [All: blockchain] AND [[All: “vehicle to grid”] OR [All: “vehicle-to-grid”] OR [All: “vehicle-to-grid”] OR [All: V2G]] | 8 results |
Query 6 | [All: blockchain] AND [[All: “vehicle to vehicle”] OR [All: “vehicle-to- vehicle”] OR [All: “vehicle-to- vehicle”] OR [All: V2V] OR [All: * vehicle] OR [All: IoV]] | 22 results |
Google Scholar Database Query | ||
Query | blockchain AND (“* vehicle” OR V2V OR V2G OR IoV OR microgrid)—anywhere in the searched documents | 503 results |
Appendix B. Primary Studies
IoV Management | |||||
(a) Author | (b) Title | (c) Identified Problems | (d) Study Outcomes | (e) Limitations | |
[123] | A review of strategic charging–discharging control of grid-connected electric vehicles | System performance (e.g., overloading, deteriorating power quality, power loss) | A review on key challenges for the V2G charging-discharging | Lack of simulation models, security, EV aggregation methods, regulation, communication protocols and standards, charging profiles | |
[124] | Integrating IoT and blockchain for ensuring road safety: an unconventional approach | Road accidents caused by parameters such as speed, security, stability and fairness. | Integration of IoT with DLTs through Hashgraph to create a communication network between the different vehicles and other relevant parameters. Scheduling the requests according to the priorities for ensuring better QoS | Large amounts of time and resources for validation, limited storage, authentication and user revocation | |
[15] | Blockchain based trading platform for electric vehicle charging in smart cities | High storage footprint, computation and communication overhead | A smart-contract-based trading platform that runs on top of Ethereum | Limited computational power, network throughput and latency | |
[125] | BlockEV: Efficient and Secure Charging Station Selection for Electric Vehicles | Untrusted EV charging infrastructures result in privacy and security threats to EV user’s private information | A blockchain-based efficient CSs selection protocol for EVs to ensure security and privacy, availability of the reserved time slots, high QoS and enhanced EV user comfort | Dynamic pricing, integration of EVs and renewable energy in smart grid | |
Smart Grid Management | |||||
Author | Title | Identified Problems | Study Outcomes | Limitations | |
[126] | A Secured and Trusted Demand Response system based on Blockchain technologies | Interoperability issues, security and privacy issues in aggregator-prosumer transactions | A multi-agent decision making system and self-learning algorithms to enable aggregation, segmentation and coordination of several diverse clusters. In addition, a blockchain-based smart contract for securing the aggregator–prosumer transactions. | Optimizing the security-efficiency trade-offs | |
[127] | Blockchain and smart metering towards sustainable prosumers | Imbalances in the energy network due to the arrival of prosumers, security concerns related to the communication between prosumers | A load-balancing network incorporating smart meters, and adopting blockchain for securing the communication between prosumers | Optimal control of energy flows, optimal scheduling in non-standard prosumers, incentive mechanism | |
[128] | Research on the Blockchain-based Integrated Demand Response Resources Transaction Scheme | Centralized trading of electricity market model is unable to meet the trading needs of distributed resources, difficulties in real-time scheduling of demand response | The blockchain-based demand response transaction platform which supports the credible transaction and settlement between the distributed resources and promote the development of DERs. | Smart contracts execution fees, Real-time scheduling | |
[129] | Enabling New Technologies for Demand Response Decentralized Validation Using Blockchain | Improper management of the energy supply and demand can threaten the stability of the grid, Variations of the energy production and consumption can lead to overloading the network, Technological scalability problems it may also generate higher fees in energy prices | A demand response framework for near-real time autonomous demand response management combined with a democratic market driven pricing scheme. | Technological scalability problems, higher fees, higher energy prices | |
[92] | Blockchain and computational intelligence inspired incentive-compatible demand response in internet of electric vehicles | Lack of incentive mechanism, privacy leakage and security threats | A distributed, privacy-preserved, and incentive-compatible demand response mechanism for secure energy trading between EVs, with moderate cost | Tremendous costs for decrypting the encrypted data, increased computation resources | |
[95] | An Introduction to Blockchain-based Concepts for Demand Response Considering of Electric Vehicles and Renewable Energies | Weak data security and privacy, low speed of financial transactions | Proposition of a blockchain-based concept for demand response programs by efficient use of electric vehicles and renewable energies in the electricity markets | Lack of participation of end-consumer, EVs and DERs in local electricity markets, lack of incentive mechanisms | |
[130] | Sustainable microgrid design considering blockchain technology for real-time price-based demand response programs | Unsustainable microgrid design, energy demand uncertainty | A fuzzy multi-objective optimization approach to determine the optimal number, location, and capacity of renewable distributed generation units as well as the equilibrium supply and dynamic pricing decisions under uncertain demand, capacity, and economic, environmental, and social parameters. | Increased computational time, requirement for historical data to analyse the probability distributions of the uncertainty parameters | |
P2P Energy Trading | |||||
Author | Title | Identified Problems | Study Outcomes | Limitations | |
[131] | Enabling Localized Peer-to-Peer Electricity Trading among Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using Consortium Blockchains | Transactions security and privacy protection issues | A localized P2P electricity trading model for locally buying and selling electricity among PHEVs in smart grids. | Lack of large-scale evaluation | |
[66] | Blockchain based Data and Energy Trading in Internet of Electric Vehicles | Trust-less IoV environment, trading disputes and conflicting interests among trading parties, lack of privacy while ensuring EVs’ anonymity. | A consortium blockchain to maintain transparency and trust in trading activities within the IoV | Limited storage capacity | |
[132] | Secure and Efficient Vehicle-to-Grid Energy Trading in Cyber Physical Systems: Integration of Blockchain and Edge Computing | Power fluctuation, lack of a distributed security mechanism for V2G energy trading, single point of failure, denial of service attacks, privacy leakage, lack of an efficient incentive mechanism for V2G energy trading. | A secure and efficient V2G energy trading framework by exploring blockchain, contract theory, and edge computing. | Selection of the initial point to increase the convergence speed | |
AI/ML in IoV | |||||
Author | Title | Identified Problems | Study Outcomes | Limitations | |
[51] | Deep reinforcement learning based performance optimization in blockchain-enabled Internet of vehicle | Scalability and performance issues to handle huge amounts of data coming from the IoV, low data security and privacy, poor interoperability and compatibility among different nodes, high storage and transaction costs | A novel deep reinforcement learning based performance optimization framework for blockchain-enabled IoV | Computation power | |
[57] | AI, blockchain, and vehicular edge computing for smart and secure IoV: Challenges and directions | Lack of recourses in the IoV stress the infrastructure | An overview that discusses the AI and blockchain approaches and models for IoV and proposes a new Vehicular Edge Computing-based architecture embedding both technologies | Collecting IoV data might be costly, Cost optimization in terms of network, storage and computation recoursesData are generated on the user level, and are forwarded to the Cloud/Fog for analysis. Edge resembles the man-in-the-middle for such a process to help the Cloud/Fog pre-processing the data according to the vehicle profile | |
[133] | Deep Reinforcement Learning for Optimal Resource Allocation in Blockchain-based IoV Secure Systems | Privacy and security of vehicular data, poor interoperability, compatibility among different nodes, high storage and transaction costs | A framework that combines DRL and blockchain to address the high cost and security problems. The proposed learning-based algorithm smartly learns to allocate the computing resource to each miner of the blockchain, in which the data are securely shared and stored for the IoV network. | Privacy-preserving concerns, Lack of large-scale evaluation | |
Privacy & Security | |||||
Author | Title | Identified Problems | Study Outcomes | Limitations | |
[134] | Blockchain-based secured event-information sharing protocol in internet of vehicles for smart cities | Single point failure, data immutability | A framework for the VANET system with blockchain technology that provides the reliability of the critical messages | Block verification time, scalability of blockchain network | |
[16] | A Lightweight Blockchain-Based Trust Model for Smart Vehicles in VANETs | Untrusted messages, compromised RSU, untrusted Vehicles | Lightweight blockchain-based decentralized trust model for preserving the privacy in VANET | Lack of large-scale evaluation | |
[73] | Blockchain-based Trust Management for Internet of Vehicles | Complex network structure and high mobility, unreliable messages exchange, malicious vehicles | A trust management system of IoV based on blockchain, which formalizes a complete vehicle reputation value calculation scheme to deal with the problem of calculating the credibility of messages | An IoV-compatible consensus algorithm is necessary to make mining times shorter and reduce the delay of trust management systems | |
[135] | Secure V2X Environment using Blockchain Technology | Unsecure V2X environment | A hypothetical framework that renders the impact of challenging factors on the implementation of blockchain in V2X paradigm | Scalability issues, processing power and time, data protection, interoperability, limited storage, inappropriate consensus algorithm, legal concerns, anonymity | |
Data Protection & Management | |||||
Author | Title | Identified Problems | Study Outcomes | Limitations | |
[64] | Blockchain for The Internet of Vehicles: How to use Blockchain to secure Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) Communication and Payment? | V2X infrastructure issues, concern about establishing secure and instant payments and communications within the IoV | A blockchain-based solution for establishing secure payment and communication (PSEV) in order to study the use of blockchain as middle-ware between different participants of intelligent transportation systems | Memory and power consumption | |
[61] | AIT: An AI-Enabled Trust Management System for Vehicular Networks Using Blockchain Technology | Erroneous traffic-related messages, malfunctioning IoT devices, malicious vehicles, sharing of fake traffic alerts | A trust management system that is based on deep learning to evaluate the trust of nodes and data. Blockchain is incorporated to the system so that both the identity of vehicles and RSUs and the authenticity of messages sent in the vehicular networks could be validated | Effective evaluation of trust in vehicular networks while maintaining the privacy of vehicles | |
Blockchain Performance in IoV | |||||
Author | Title | Identified Problems | Study Outcomes | Limitations | |
[43] | Impacts of Mobility on Performance of Blockchain in VANET | Grid imbalances due to EV mobility and dynamicity in the connectivity of the nodes | A comprehensive analysis framework that encompasses from modelling of nodes’ mobility to analysis of the impacts of mobility on a blockchain system’s performance | The grid stability is determined by the nodes’ velocities, the number of full nodes, and the radius of the full nodes’ communication range. The number of blocks that can be exchanged during a rendezvous can be inferred from the stability | |
[105] | Performance Analysis of Blockchain-Based Internet of Vehicles Under the DSRC Architecture | Lack of suitable consensus algorithm for IoV applications, mobility of the IoV nodes bring fluctuations and reliability problems to the consensus of the blockchain network | A two-layer wireless architecture to avoid the impact of mobility on the blockchain network, and analyses the blockchain transaction delivery model based on the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CA) mechanism. | Increased confirmation delay |
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Databases | Keywords | Search Queries |
---|---|---|
Google Scholar | blockchain, energy | “blockchain AND energy” |
renewable energy | “blockchain AND “renewable energy”” | |
IEEEXplore | blockchain, microgrid | “blockchain AND microgrid” |
blockchain, energy trading | “blockchain AND “energy trading”” | |
ScienceDirect | blockchain, V2V | blockchain AND (“* vehicle” OR V2G OR V2V OR IoV) |
SpringerLink | blockchain, V2G | |
ACM Digital Library | blockchain, IoV | |
blockchain, * vehicle |
Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
---|---|
Peer-reviewed studies | Grey literature |
Academic theoretical and empirical research | White papers and material from non-academic sources |
Full-text available | Full-text not available |
Written in English language | Written in non-English language |
Published in 2017 onwards | Published before 2017 |
Relevant to blockchain and IoV concept | Diverged from the field of blockchain and IoV concept |
Concept addressed by means of a valid methodology |
Application Area | Correlation Result |
---|---|
Ride sharing | 1.499 |
Energy consumption | 1.121 |
Pricing schemes | 1.049 |
Data protection | 0.491 |
Charging management | 0.468 |
Traffic control | 0.415 |
V2X communication | 0.300 |
Demand response | 0.095 |
Machine learning | 0.047 |
Incentive mechanisms | −0.032 |
Identity management | −0.157 |
Network performance | −0.369 |
Regulation | −0.398 |
Blockchain Platforms Used in IoV | Platform Adoption Percentage |
---|---|
Ethereum | 53.4% |
Hyperledger Fabric | 19.2% |
IOTA | 8.2% |
Hyperledger | 4.1% |
Hashgraph | 2.7% |
Binance | 1.4% |
Bitcoin | 1.4% |
Ganache | 1.4% |
Corda | 1.4% |
Exonum | 1.4% |
Hyperledger Indy | 1.4% |
Hyperledger Sawtooth | 1.4% |
InterChain | 1.4% |
Cosmos | 1.4% |
Observation | Description |
---|---|
OB.1 | IoV needs decentralization in terms of energy management |
OB.2 | Real-time monitoring of the connected objects in the IoV is critical |
OB.3 | Energy generation and consumption in the IoV may affect the demand and response in smart grids |
OB.4 | EV energy trading and charging procedures must effectively represent demand–supply balance |
OB.5 | Private information of the EVs are exposed resulting in privacy and security issues |
OB.6 | EVs with surplus energy are not motivated to participate as energy sellers due to the lack of incentive mechanisms |
OB.7 | Blockchain can be used for fair payments during energy trading without relying in untrustied third-parties |
OB.8 | Blockchain can provide security and privacy through EV identity management and data encryption |
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Share and Cite
Kapassa, E.; Themistocleous, M.; Christodoulou, K.; Iosif, E. Blockchain Application in Internet of Vehicles: Challenges, Contributions and Current Limitations. Future Internet 2021, 13, 313. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi13120313
Kapassa E, Themistocleous M, Christodoulou K, Iosif E. Blockchain Application in Internet of Vehicles: Challenges, Contributions and Current Limitations. Future Internet. 2021; 13(12):313. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi13120313
Chicago/Turabian StyleKapassa, Evgenia, Marinos Themistocleous, Klitos Christodoulou, and Elias Iosif. 2021. "Blockchain Application in Internet of Vehicles: Challenges, Contributions and Current Limitations" Future Internet 13, no. 12: 313. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi13120313