A Review of Low-Temperature Plasma for Surface Engineering of Biomass Materials

Zhang, Yanghong; Ma, Yan; Wu, Jianhua; Wu, Youqing; Li, Yanjun; Xu, Lei; Lou, Zhichao

doi:10.3390/f17020251

Open AccessReview

A Review of Low-Temperature Plasma for Surface Engineering of Biomass Materials

by

Yanghong Zhang

^1,†,

Yan Ma

^1,†,

Jianhua Wu

²,

Youqing Wu

²,

Yanjun Li

³,

Lei Xu

^4,*

and

Zhichao Lou

^1,*

¹

National-Provincial Joint Engineering Research Center of Biomaterials for Machinery Package, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China

²

Jiangxi Zhuangchi Home Technology Co., Ltd., Fuzhou 335300, China

³

Bamboo Industry Institute, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China

⁴

Key Laboratory for Protected Agricultural Engineering in the Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China

^*

Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.

^†

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Forests 2026, 17(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17020251

Submission received: 22 January 2026 / Revised: 6 February 2026 / Accepted: 10 February 2026 / Published: 13 February 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches to Modifying Wood and Wood-Based Material Properties in the 21st Century)

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Abstract

The inherent surface limitations of biomass materials restrict their use in high-performance composites, highlighting the need for effective surface modification. Low-temperature plasma technology has emerged as a promising solution owing to its rapid processing, localized energy, and environmental friendliness. This review systematically examines recent advances in the surface modification of biomass materials using low-temperature plasma. First, low-temperature plasma systems are classified and described according to working atmosphere, operating pressure, and discharge mode. Subsequently, the physicochemical mechanisms underlying surface modification are thoroughly discussed. The effect of key process parameters—such as aging effect, discharge power, and treatment distance—on modification outcomes is analyzed. The specific applications and effects of low-temperature plasma technology on typical biomass materials, including wood, bamboo, and straw, are summarized. Studies have indicated that low-temperature plasma treatment significantly enhances the surface properties of biomass materials. With further development, low-temperature plasma technology may gradually replace certain conventional modification methods. Future research should focus on elucidating the structure–property relationships between plasma process parameters and material performance and advancing the technology from laboratory to industrial scale. The integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning provides great potential to accelerate the discovery of process–performance correlations through data modeling and intelligent optimization, enabling precise control and smart manufacturing.

Keywords:

low-temperature plasma; surface properties; biomass materials; wood; bamboo; straw

1. Introduction

Driven by global goals for “low-carbon” emission reduction and sustainable development, biomass materials are transitioning from conventional uses to high-performance, high-value applications. Owing to their inherent biodegradability and low carbon footprint, biomass materials provide a vital basis for green substitution and circular economy development [1]. Key sustainability-focused research directions include the applications of biomass in engineering structures [2], functional modifications [3], and high-value agricultural waste utilization [4]. Although biomass materials are generally hydrophilic, their surface roughness and heterogeneous chemical composition result in a complex coexistence of hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains [5,6], chemical inertness [7,8], and poor interfacial compatibility as fillers in hydrophobic polymer matrices [9]. These intrinsic surface limitations significantly limit the use of biomass in high-performance composites. These challenges cannot be resolved through macroscopic processing or material selection alone. Consequently, precise surface modification has become crucial for overcoming these performance constraints and unlocking the high-value potential of biomass, making it a practical priority.

In biomass surface modification, physical, chemical, and biological approaches form the three main technical strategies, each tailored to specific applications (Figure 1). However, all of these methods have notable limitations that hinder their broad application under stringent industrial conditions. Although existing techniques can improve surface performance through modification of the microstructure, removal of undesirable components, or introduction of target functional groups, they still face critical challenges (Table 1). This highlights the need for further research and optimization. Specifically, physical methods mainly rely on physical adsorption or mechanical interlocking for surface modification. Although these methods minimize the use of chemical reagents, they typically produce weak interfacial bonding between the modified layer and the substrate. Consequently, the modified layers exhibit limited durability and poor control over molecular-scale structure [10]. This results in modification effects that are often non-durable, with performance susceptible to decay under complex service conditions, making it difficult to achieve high-value functionalization and resulting in limited overall performance enhancement. From an economic perspective, while the initial investment is relatively low, the short effective lifespan may lead to the need for repeated treatments, thereby increasing long-term maintenance costs. Chemical methods enable targeted functionalization through the introduction or modification of surface chemical groups. However, these methods often require highly corrosive chemicals or organic solvents, which can irreversibly damage the material bulk structure and impose significant environmental burdens [11]. In practical applications, the stringent process conditions demand high corrosion resistance of the equipment and necessitate the installation of expensive waste liquid treatment systems, significantly raising both capital investment and operational costs. Simultaneously, chemical damage may compromise the intrinsic properties of the material, leading to a trade-off between performance and reliability. Biological methods operate under mild conditions and provide high environmental compatibility. However, these methods are limited by long treatment cycles, sensitivity to reaction conditions (e.g., temperature, pH), and poor batch-to-batch reproducibility. Consequently, achieving both efficient and precise surface modification remains a significant challenge [12]. These factors severely constrain its processing efficiency and the feasibility of large-scale implementation; the extended production cycles imply higher temporal and spatial costs, while the unpredictability of outcomes introduces quality control risks, collectively compromising its overall techno-economic viability.

Figure 1. Three main methods for biomass surface modification.

Plasma, the fourth fundamental state of matter distinct from solids, liquids, and gases, is an ionized gas composed of ions, electrons, free radicals, and neutral molecules. The concept was first proposed and formally named by American scientist Irving Langmuir in 1928 [13]. In material surface treatment, plasma processing involves a physicochemical coupling mechanism, representing a surface chemical modification process driven and regulated by physical energy input. Plasma can be categorized based on its energy state as either high-temperature or low-temperature. Unlike high-temperature (thermal) plasma, which is in thermal equilibrium, low-temperature plasma exists in a non-equilibrium state. This unique characteristic provides distinct advantages for material surface modification [14]. First, low-temperature plasma is highly efficient, enabling rapid modification of surface properties within seconds via gas discharge [15]. Second, low-temperature plasma operates at near-ambient temperatures, making it particularly suitable for thermally sensitive substrates [16]. Third, the abundance of reactive species in low-temperature plasma enables reactions such as surface polymerization under mild, catalyst-free conditions. These processes are often difficult to achieve through conventional thermochemical methods [14]. Fourth, low-temperature plasma provides precise, shallow surface penetration. Modification is typically limited to the outermost surface layer (within ~100 nm), enabling nanoscale functionalization and preserving bulk material properties [17]. Lastly, low-temperature plasma, an environmentally friendly, dry, gas-phase process, requires no water or chemical additives, generates minimal chemical waste or wastewater, and supports clean and sustainable production [18]. Owing to these advantages, low-temperature plasma surface modification has been widely applied in fields such as biomedicine [19], electronics [20], and textiles [21]. In recent years, the use of low-temperature plasma for biomass surface modification has received increasing attention, indicating significant potential. For example, Wante et al. [22] treated coconut shell-derived carbon with oxygen plasma, forming oxygen-containing functional groups and microporous structures. This treatment significantly enhanced material adsorption capacity for malachite green dye, achieving a removal rate exceeding 96%. Similarly, Bozaci et al. [23] used air and argon plasma to treat flax fibers. This treatment increased surface oxygen-containing groups and roughness, thereby improving interfacial bonding with polymer matrices. These studies provide effective approaches for the surface functionalization and interfacial enhancement of biomass materials, present innovative strategies for their high-value functional utilization, and facilitate their development toward high-performance applications.

The literature foundation of this review is primarily drawn from databases such as Web of Science and CNKI, covering a time span from 2000 to 2025. The search focused on themes including “Low-Temperature plasma,” “biomass materials,” and “surface modification,” with emphasis on screening literature that provides key evidence regarding mechanisms, the influence of process parameters, and durability, in order to conduct systematic integration and in-depth analysis. Despite the widespread use of low-temperature plasma technology in biomass surface modification, existing reviews have largely focused on mechanistic overviews or lists of applications for individual materials, while lacking a holistic analytical perspective that connects “mechanism–parameters–performance–durability” across the entire process. In particular, there has been no systematic comparison of the common patterns and key differences when different discharge modes are applied to different biomass materials (such as bamboo, wood, and straw). To address this, this paper aims to establish such a comprehensive analytical framework, with its core contributions being: (1) focusing on “durability” as a bottleneck limiting technological application, and systematically examining the mechanisms and data gaps related to the decay of modification effects; (2) strengthening quantitative correlation analysis of process parameters, aiming to identify process windows and levels of evidence for different modification objectives (such as hydrophilicity, adhesion, and controllable color change); (3) providing a comparative guide categorized by discharge mode and biomass type, to bridge mechanistic understanding with engineering selection. Finally, based on this framework, this paper will point to challenges such as quantitative modeling, large-area uniformity, and intelligent optimization, with the aim of offering a more decision-relevant systematic analysis to promote the tailored design and industrial application of this technology.

Table 1. Common methods for biomass surface modification.

Modification Type	Representative Technologies	Modification Mechanism	Advantages	Disadvantages	Application Scenarios	Ref.
Physical Methods	Mechanical treatment	Removes surface material through abrasion or blasting to increase surface roughness.	Rapid, low-cost, and pollution-free.	Shallow modification depth; non-uniform results; dust generation.	Surface roughening to improve the mechanical interlocking of coatings or adhesives.	[24]
	Heat treatment	Applies thermal energy to degrade and reorganize amorphous components (e.g., hemicellulose), reducing hydrophilicity.	Improves dimensional stability and decay resistance; environmentally friendly.	Potential strength loss; energy-intensive; requires precise control.	Reducing surface hydrophilicity and enhancing dimensional stability for outdoor applications.	[25]
	Radiation treatment	High-energy radiation cleaves molecular chains and generates free radicals for subsequent reactions.	Uniform modification with deep penetration.	High equipment cost; radiation hazards; potential embrittlement.	Surface cross-linking or degradation to enhance hardness or chemical reactivity.	[26]
	Ultrasonic treatment	Utilizes cavitation effects to clean and micro-roughen the surface.	Mild operating conditions with effective cleaning.	Limited to small areas; unsuitable for large components; relatively high energy consumption.	Precision cleaning and micro-roughening to improve uniformity before further processing.	[27]
	Laser treatment	Uses a high-energy laser beam to ablate material, enabling precise surface patterning.	High precision with micro-/nano-scale processing capability.	High equipment cost; low throughput; risk of thermal damage/carbonization.	Fabrication of micro-textured surfaces for superhydrophobic, optical, or sensing functions.	[28]
Chemical Methods	Alkali treatment	Dissolves hemicellulose and lignin, thereby increasing porosity and exposing cellulose microfibrils.	Highly effective; significantly improves surface reactivity.	Produces alkaline wastewater; may reduce fiber strength.	Surface cleaning/activation to increase specific surface area and reactive sites.	[29]
	Acid treatment	Hydrolyzes hemicellulose and alters the surface chemical structure.	Relatively mild reaction conditions.	Reduces polymerization degree; causes equipment corrosion; requires wastewater treatment.	Preparation of water-resistant wood surfaces.	[30]
	Esterification/Acetylation	Introduces hydrophobic groups (e.g., acetyl) onto cellulose hydroxyl groups.	Provides durable hydrophobicity; improves dimensional stability.	High cost; use of toxic reagents and catalysts; long reaction times.	Surface functionalization to impart properties such as thermoplasticity or flame retardancy.	[31]
Biological Methods	Enzymatic treatment	Enzymes selectively cleave bonds or introduce functional groups.	Mild conditions; high specificity; environmental friendliness.	High enzyme cost; slow reaction rates; sensitivity to pH and temperature.	Biorefining in pulp/paper and textiles; interfacial modification in biocomposites.	[32,33]

2. Types of Low-Temperature Plasma

Low-temperature plasma treatment is a key technology for biomass surface modification. In this process, gases (e.g., oxygen or nitrogen) are ionized in a reaction chamber via high-voltage discharge. This generates a low-temperature plasma rich in highly reactive species, including electrons, ions, free radicals, and excited molecules. These energetic species interact with the material surface through energy transfer and chemical reactions, thereby inducing controlled physical and chemical modifications [34]. To achieve precise and efficient surface modification, the plasma type should be selected based on material properties, process conditions, and targeted functionalities [35]. This section systematically reviews the main classifications of low-temperature plasma according to three key parameters: working atmosphere, operating pressure, and discharge mode. The applicability and characteristics of these classifications for biomass surface modification are discussed.

2.1. Working Atmosphere

The working atmosphere is a key factor in determining the chemical reactivity of plasma [36] and strongly influences surface modification outcomes. These outcomes include the regulation of hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity, the introduction of functional groups, etching, and polymerization [37].

Common working atmospheres for low-temperature plasma can be categorized as inert, reactive, or mixed gases [38]. Inert atmospheres, typically argon (Ar) or helium (He), generate plasmas composed of energetic species such as ions, electrons, excited-state molecules, and free radicals [39]. Because these gases do not directly participate in chemical reactions at the biomass surface, the modification effects mainly result from physical bombardment by high-energy particles. This process can induce surface cleaning, etching (creating microscale roughness), and initiation of cross-linking within surface molecular chains (Figure 2a) [40,41]. Consequently, inert plasmas are often used to enhance the wettability of biomass surfaces, thereby improving mechanical bonding with subsequently applied coatings or adhesives [42].

Reactive atmospheres mainly involve oxygen-containing gases (e.g., O₂, air), nitrogen-containing gases (e.g., N₂, NH₃), and fluorine-containing gases (e.g., CF₄, SF₆). Upon ionization, these gases produce highly reactive chemical species, which directly interact with the biomass surface to introduce new functional groups, enabling diverse surface modifications (Figure 2b) [43,44,45]. In oxygen-containing plasmas, dominant active species such as atomic oxygen (O), ozone (O₃), and hydroxyl radicals (·OH) readily oxidize biomass surfaces. This process introduces strongly polar oxygen-based functional groups, including hydroxyl (–OH), carboxyl (–COOH), and carbonyl (C=O) groups. These treatments are commonly used to increase surface energy, enhance hydrophilicity and biocompatibility, and improve the adhesion performance of wood and natural fibers. In nitrogen-containing plasmas, key active species include atomic nitrogen (N), excited nitrogen molecules (N₂*), and amino radicals (·NH₂). These species can graft nitrogen-containing functional groups (e.g., –NH₂) onto surfaces, which modify surface polarity and strengthen interfacial bonding [44]. Fluorine-containing plasmas generate reactive species such as atomic fluorine (F) and fluorocarbon radicals (•CFₓ). These species react with the biomass surface to form a stable fluorocarbon layer, thereby substantially reducing surface energy and imparting excellent hydrophobicity, oleophobicity, and chemical inertness. These treatments are commonly used for surface passivation and protection [45].

Mixed atmospheres involve combining inert gases with one or more reactive gases in specific ratios [46,47]. This approach creates a synergistic effect: the inert gas ensures a stable discharge and provides physical etching, while the reactive gas induces targeted chemical modifications (Figure 2c) [48]. Precise adjustment of the gas mixture facilitates control over the surface etching rate and the types of chemical reactions, enabling the design of complex, tailored surface properties [47].

Figure 2. (a) Schematic diagram of the surface material removal process via gas particle bombardment [41]; (b) Mechanism of the plasma nitrogen fixation reaction [49]; (c) Main chemical pathways for the production and destruction of the entire reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) [50].

2.2. Operating Pressure

Operating pressure directly influences the mean free path, energy distribution, and uniformity of particles within the plasma, which determines its spatial distribution and suitable applications. Low-temperature plasmas are mainly categorized based on pressure as low-pressure or atmospheric-pressure plasma [51].

Low-pressure plasma is typically generated under vacuum or reduced-pressure conditions (generally below 10 Pa to several thousand Pa). In this regime, the long mean free path of gas particles enables electrons to be efficiently accelerated by the electric field, thereby acquiring high energy. Heavier particles (ions and neutral atoms) remain near room temperature, resulting in a highly non-equilibrium state [52]. The most common low-pressure plasma, low-pressure glow discharge, generates a large-area, highly uniform plasma region. The key advantages of low-pressure glow discharge include excellent plasma uniformity, high-energy active species, and good process repeatability, making it suitable for controlled and consistent surface treatment of complex or precision components. The major limitations of low-pressure glow discharge include the need for a vacuum system, leading to high equipment and operating costs. The typical batch-processing nature of low-pressure glow discharge also hinders direct integration into continuous production lines. A schematic setup is shown in Figure 3a [53,54].

Atmospheric-pressure plasma is directly generated at ambient pressure (~10⁵ Pa), with a typical discharge system shown in Figure 3b. At this pressure, particle collisions are more frequent, resulting in relatively lower electron energies and facilitating the generation of numerous reactive free radicals [55]. Different discharge modes can be selected based on the material surface. Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) is commonly used for large-area planar treatment. An insulating dielectric between two electrodes produces a diffuse and stable plasma composed of numerous micro-discharge filaments [56]. Plasma jets are suitable for three-dimensional objects. Plasma generated in a discharge chamber is ejected into open space as a plume by the working gas (Figure 3c) [57,58]. Corona discharge is used for localized surface treatment. Corona discharge generates a highly non-uniform electric field near the electrode tip (Figure 3d), utilizes simple equipment, and produces a small plasma region with limited uniformity [59]. Atmospheric-pressure plasma eliminates the need for vacuum systems, enabling continuous processing, high equipment integration, and lower operating costs, making it suitable for industrial-scale applications [57,60]. The main limitations of atmospheric-pressure plasma include uneven plasma distribution and the short lifespan of active species, which restrict its capacity for precise surface treatment [61,62].

Figure 3. (a) Vacuum low-temperature plasma generation device [54]; (b) Atmospheric pressure low-temperature plasma generation device [63]; (c) Jet plasma generation device [58]; (d) Needle corona discharge generation device [62].

2.3. Discharge Modes

The discharge mode forms the physical basis of plasma generation and determines its energy coupling efficiency, stability, and key parameters such as electron density and electron temperature [64,65]. According to the nature of the applied electric field, discharge modes are mainly classified into direct current (DC) excitation, alternating current (AC) excitation, and hybrid excitation. AC excitation can be further subdivided by frequency (Table 2) [66].

DC excitation mainly includes glow discharge and arc discharge, with a schematic setup shown in Figure 4a [63,67,68]. Glow discharge is produced under low-pressure conditions using a DC voltage and is widely applied in both research and industry. The cathode fall region and positive column of glow discharge produce abundant active species, making it suitable for modifying surface energy and roughness and enhancing material adhesion [66,69,70]. In contrast, arc discharge operates at high current density and exhibits relatively high gas temperatures, which positions it closer to the regime of thermal plasma. Arc discharge is typically used in surface strengthening processes such as spraying and cladding. However, the direct application of arc discharge on biomass materials requires careful control of thermal effects [67,71,72].

AC excitation mainly includes DBD, radio frequency (RF) discharges, and microwave discharges. DBD generates stable, low-temperature, non-equilibrium plasma at atmospheric pressure via charge accumulation on dielectric layers (e.g., quartz or ceramics), which suppresses arc formation under alternating high voltage. A schematic setup is shown in Figure 4b [73]. RF discharges typically operate in the megahertz range and are further classified into capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) modes (Figure 4c,d). In CCP, plasma is directly driven by an electric field. Plasma uniformity strongly depends on electrode parallelism, symmetry, and the RF feeding method, making large-area uniform treatment challenging. In contrast, ICP relies on magnetic-field induction for energy coupling, providing higher plasma density and energy-coupling efficiency. Therefore, ICP is widely used for surface etching and thin-film deposition [74,75]. Microwave discharges operate at gigahertz frequencies (e.g., 2.45 GHz), in which microwave energy is directly coupled to electrons in an electrodeless configuration. This setup effectively prevents contamination from electrode sputtering or erosion and generates highly reactive, high-density plasma, making it suitable for clean and highly reactive surface treatments. A schematic is shown in Figure 4e [76,77].

To meet specific application needs, several hybrid or specialized discharge configurations have been developed, such as microplasmas. Microplasmas are plasma sources with discharge dimensions ranging from micrometers to millimeters. Microplasmas overcome uniformity limitations at both low- and atmospheric-pressure conditions, operate stably at ambient pressure, and provide high power density, low energy consumption, and compact size [78]. This technology enables localized, microscale modification of biomass and provides a promising approach for developing portable treatment devices and modifying complex three-dimensional porous structures, such as biological scaffolds.

Table 2. Classification of discharge modes.

	Discharge Mode	Typical Excitation Source	Operating Pressure Range	Plasma Characteristics/Generation Mechanism	Main Applications in Biomass Modification	Ref.
DC	Glow discharge	DC power supply (1–10 kV)	Low pressure (0.1–10 Pa)	Electrons accelerated by high DC voltage ionize the gas via collisions, forming a stable, uniform glow plasma.	Uniform surface cleaning and activation of wood/fibers to enhance interfacial adhesion.	[68,69]
DC	Corona discharge	Pulsed or high-voltage DC	Atmospheric pressure	A strong, localized electric field near a sharp electrode ionizes the surrounding gas, creating a corona rich in reactive species.	Continuous treatment of webs (paper, textiles) to improve printability, dye uptake, or adhesion.	[59,61]
AC	DBD	AC power supply (50–100 kHz)	Atmospheric pressure	A dielectric barrier limits current, forming numerous micro-discharges and enabling large-area, low-temperature plasma.	Continuous, large-area treatment of wood/textiles for activation, wettability control, or sterilization.	[72]
	RF discharge (capacitively coupled, CCP)	RF generator (~13.56 MHz)	Low pressure	An RF electric field between parallel electrodes accelerates electrons, generating a uniform, controllable plasma of moderate density.	Precision etching, nanotexturing, and uniform thin-film deposition on biomass surfaces.	[73,79]
	RF discharge (inductively coupled, ICP)	RF generator (~13.56 MHz)	Low pressure	An alternating magnetic field induces a circulating electric field, thereby efficiently coupling energy to electrons and producing very high-density plasma.	Deep modification or high-rate deposition for high-performance interphases in biomass composites.	[80]
	Microwave discharge	Microwave source (~2.45 GHz)	Wide range (vacuum to atmospheric)	Microwave energy is resonantly absorbed by electrons, creating a high-density, electrodeless (contamination-free), highly reactive plasma.	Efficient functionalization of biomass-derived carbon or biomedical materials; initiation of challenging graft polymerizations.	[75,76]
Hybrid	Microplasma	DC, RF, or Microwave	Atmospheric pressure	Discharge confined within micro-cavities yields high power density and enables stable miniature plasmas.	Localized micro-area modification, portable treatment devices, and interior surface treatment of complex 3D porous scaffolds.	[77]

Figure 4. (a) Schematic diagram of a DC excited discharge device (glow discharge and arc discharge) [68]; (b) Schematic diagram of a dielectric barrier discharge device [56]; (c) Schematic diagram of a capacitively coupled radio-frequency discharge device [80]; (d) Schematic diagram of an inductively coupled radio-frequency discharge device [75]; (e) Schematic diagram of a microwave discharge device [77].

3. Multiscale Mechanisms and Property Regulation in Plasma Surface Modification

3.1. Mechanisms of Low-Temperature Plasma Surface Treatment

Low-temperature plasma is a partially ionized gas, in which energetic particles and reactive species collectively act on the material surface, inducing a range of physical and chemical changes [81,82]. At the microscopic level, these mechanisms are mainly driven by two complementary processes: surface etching [83] and surface functionalization [84]. Surface etching alters morphology and roughness, while functionalization introduces oxygen-containing groups. Overall, these processes enable targeted improvements in surface performance (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Schematic representation of key plasma-induced mechanisms: increased surface roughness, incorporation of polar functional groups, improved wettability, and enhanced mechanical interlocking and chemical bonding [85].

3.1.1. Surface Etching

Surface etching utilizes reactive plasma species to selectively remove material from a surface, thereby modifying its micro-topography and surface properties for cleaning, pattern transfer, or morphological control. According to the dominant removal mechanism, etching can be classified into three types. Physical sputtering etching utilizes high-energy ions (e.g., Ar⁺) to physically bombard and eject surface atoms. Although not material-selective, this process is highly directional, enabling precise control of the etched morphology [86,87]. Chemical etching involves reactions between radicals (e.g., F, O) and the material to form volatile products. This approach provides high material selectivity but typically yields isotropic etching profiles [88,89]. Physicochemical synergistic etching, such as reactive ion etching (RIE), combines ion bombardment with chemical reactions. The ion bombardment accelerates reaction rates, facilitates product removal, and preserves directionality, enabling precise control over surface properties [90].

Chytrosz-Wrobel et al. [91] demonstrated that oxygen-plasma etching behavior is influenced by polymer crystallinity. High-density polyethylene, with its dense crystalline structure, exhibits high etching resistance. In contrast, amorphous polyurethane, composed of loosely arranged molecular chains, undergoes more uniform etching, resulting in a relatively flat surface. In semicrystalline polyethylene, etching preferentially removes materials from amorphous regions, creating nanoscale ripple structures with varying density and depth. Moreover, plasma etching generally increases surface roughness and specific surface area, thereby effectively modulating wettability, adhesion, and optical properties (Figure 6a). These findings provide valuable guidance for designing functionalized material surfaces.

In wood science, plasma etching has been used to investigate and enhance wood surface properties, with knowledge evolving from observations to mechanistic insights. Early studies [92] have examined the etching effects of plasma on wood surfaces. Subsequent research has confirmed that plasma treatment can etch cell walls, remove extractives, and enlarge pits, highlighting its potential to expose wood microstructure. Bapat et al. [93] found that subjecting hemp fibers to prolonged argon/oxygen plasma treatment (30 min to 4 h) under low-pressure conditions effectively removed surface lignin. Fluorescence microscopy observations revealed a significant reduction in surface fluorescence of the fibers after 4 h of argon plasma treatment, confirming the extractive-removing effect of the plasma (Figure 6c). Plasma effects are not purely physical. For example, Gupta et al. [94] reported that in wood–plastic composites, radio-frequency plasma both physically etches and chemically modifies the wood surface with oxygen-containing functional groups. These modifications synergistically improve coating adhesion. Xie et al. [95] reported that oxygen plasma treatment of wood, combined with profile measurements using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM), induced noticeable surface etching (Figure 6b). This etching process simultaneously modulated both surface roughness and chemical composition, thereby successfully producing superhydrophobic wood. More recent studies have extensively investigated the differential etching of major wood components. Jamali and Evans [96] demonstrated that plasma etching of wood proceeds selectively: regions with higher lignin content, such as the compound middle lamella, exhibit greater resistance to etching compared to the secondary wall. This differential etching leads to overall cell wall thinning and the formation of micro-voids within the secondary wall (Figure 6d). Therefore, plasma etching is an effective analytical tool for visualizing the ultrastructure of wood cell walls, such as lignin distribution. Overall, plasma etching serves a dual purpose in wood research. Plasma modifies wood surfaces via physicochemical synergy and selectively etches wood, enabling investigations of its hierarchical structure and chemical distribution.

Figure 6. (a) Plasma etching mechanisms of polymers with different crystallinities and AFM topographic characterization of polyurethane surfaces before and after treatment [85]; (b) SEM and LSCM images of wood surfaces before and after oxygen plasma treatment [95]; (c) Autofluorescence images of untreated and treated fibers and the distribution of relative fluorescence intensity along the depth (z-axis) [93]. (d) Microscopic morphological evolution of wood induced by oxygen plasma treatment: SEM images of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and LSCM images of yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) [67].

3.1.2. Surface Functionalization

Surface functionalization is a key mechanism in plasma surface modification. This process enables the controlled introduction of specific polar functional groups within a nanoscale surface layer and preserves bulk material properties [97,98]. Surface functionalization typically involves two steps. First, high-energy particles (e.g., electrons and ions) bombard the plasma surface, cleaving chemical bonds (such as C-H and C-C) and forming active sites (e.g., free radicals or unsaturated bonds). Second, in a reactive gas atmosphere (e.g., O₂ or NH₃), radicals formed via gas dissociation (e.g., O•, NH₂•) react with these surface sites to produce stable, covalently anchored functional groups (Figure 7a) [99].

Surface functionalization has broad applicability across various materials, enabling tailored surface composition and enhanced performance. Steen et al. [100] monitored gas-phase and surface species during low-temperature plasma treatment of polymer films via in situ optical emission spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. The results confirmed the targeted grafting of oxygen-containing groups (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl) onto the film surface. More recently, Ren et al. [101] demonstrated that selecting different reactive gases (e.g., Ar, O₂, CF₄) and adjusting plasma power direct distinct reaction pathways on polyimide surfaces. These pathways result in the selective grafting of either oxygen- or fluorine-containing functional groups. The evolution of characteristic functional-group peaks closely matches proposed mechanistic models (Figure 7b,c). This highlights the effect of plasma parameters on the chemical state of the polymer film surface.

Plasma-induced surface functionalization has proven highly effective for modifying biomass and polymer materials. For example, Zajac et al. [102] treated polypropylene surfaces with oxygen plasma, thereby successfully grafting polar groups such as –OH and –C=O. This modification transformed the surface from hydrophobic to hydrophilic. The resulting active sites served as “anchoring points” for immobilizing nano-TiO₂, providing a practical strategy to overcome the inherent inertness and limited functionality of biomass materials. Su et al. [103] employed radio-frequency plasma to directionally modify the surface of bamboo-derived porous carbon microfibers, successfully introducing carboxyl (–COOH) and pyrrolic nitrogen functional groups. This modification significantly enhanced the formaldehyde adsorption capacity to 205.28 mg/g. Further theoretical calculations indicated that the introduction of carboxyl and pyrrolic nitrogen groups increased the adsorption energy to –14.54 kcal·mol⁻¹ and –11.58 kcal·mol⁻¹, representing improvements of 83.82% and 46.40%, respectively, compared to the unmodified sample. These results confirm the critical role of surface functionalization in enhancing formaldehyde adsorption (Figure 7d). Similarly, Yu et al. [104] used oxygen plasma to activate cellulose and graft amidoxime groups, forming an adsorbent with a uranium(VI) adsorption capacity of 101.15 mg·g⁻¹. This excellent performance was attributed to the abundant oxygen and nitrogen chelation sites provided by the plasma-grafted amidoxime groups (Figure 7d), which enhanced coordination with metal ions. These studies indicate that plasma-based surface functionalization can precisely engineer material surfaces, thereby imparting specific wettability, adsorption, or interfacial bonding properties. This approach holds considerable potential for applications in environmental, energy, and biomaterial fields.

Overall, surface functionalization and physical etching often operate synergistically or competitively in practical treatment, with the dominant mechanism determined by plasma parameters and the material’s inherent properties. Understanding this interaction is key to regulating the final surface properties. Future research should focus on quantifying the relative contribution of key process parameters to each aspect, aiming to meet specific functional requirements while preserving or extending surface stability as much as possible.

Figure 7. (a) A HDPE surface is modified with -OH and -F groups by Ion-coupled plasma (ICP) [105]; (b) Schematic of ICP-RIE and surface passivation for functionalizing polyimide film; (c) Comparison of XPS spectra of polyimide (PI) films: untreated; treated with ICP-O₂-300W plasma; treated with ICP-CF₄-300W plasma [101]; (d) The RDG isosurface maps for formaldehyde adsorption of BCMFs with various O-containing and N-containing functional groups [103]; (e) Oxygen plasma grafting mechanism in the preparation process; (f) Comparison of uranium concentrations before and after adsorption in simulated seawater (adsorption time:15 days) [104].

3.2. Aging Effect

Plasma-induced surface modifications generally exhibit time-dependent aging, highlighting that the enhanced surface properties tend to degrade during storage. This behavior is attributed to the thermodynamically metastable state of the treated surface, which gradually relaxes toward a more stable configuration. Studies have shown that this aging behavior is common across different materials. This behavior is mainly attributed to the relaxation or rearrangement of surface chemical groups (e.g., polar functional groups) or interactions with ambient factors (e.g., oxygen, moisture), rather than changes in surface morphology [106,107]. For example, Wang et al. [108] reported that the hydrophobicity of plasma-treated Armos fibers significantly recovered after 10 days. Moreover, surface morphology stabilized within the first day. Correspondingly, the interfacial shear strength of the composites decreased from 68.8 MPa to 63.3 MPa over 15 days. This indicates that performance decay was mainly driven by the gradual loss of polar functional groups. Similarly, Marques et al. [109] observed that the plasma-enhanced hydrophilicity of ultrafiltration polymer membranes returned to near-original hydrophobicity within 7 days. Zhang et al. [110] compared aging in various plasma-treated Al₂O₃/EP systems. The results revealed that certain treatments (e.g., DBD) caused surface charge dissipation to return to levels similar to those of untreated samples after 5 days. Wang and Cheng [69] further demonstrated that glow-discharge plasma increased the hydrophilicity of green bamboo (contact angle < 20°). However, this effect diminished over time, with over 30% recovery after 24 h and up to 50% after 72 h. These studies indicate that the limited durability of plasma modifications remains a key constraint for practical applications.

It is noteworthy that in plasma modification of biomass substrates, beyond surface properties such as wettability, the temporal stability of material color change represents a critical yet often overlooked dimension. Studies have confirmed that plasma treatment can induce measurable immediate color changes (e.g., CIELAB color difference ΔE*ab) in materials like wood and starch, typically manifesting as decreased lightness and increased yellowness, with the extent closely linked to the material’s nature and processing parameters [111]. For instance, treatment of wood veneers shows that discoloration is species-specific, and plasma pretreatment may exacerbate color change in already-weathered wood during subsequent outdoor exposure [112]. In starch, color variation even correlates directly with the degree of granule structural breakdown [113]. However, compared with systematic durability studies of the aforementioned surface properties, data on whether such induced color states further evolve (e.g., intensify, stabilize, or reverse) during storage or use remain largely uncharacterized. The mechanisms underlying the temporal stability of color changes are likely more complex, involving multiple unresolved factors such as chromophore relaxation, post-treatment oxidation, or altered photosensitivity, and may differ fundamentally depending on the material’s chemical basis (e.g., lignin, polysaccharide, or pigment content) [114,115,116]. Therefore, the issue of color stability following plasma treatment constitutes a critical research gap that must be addressed when evaluating the suitability of this technology for color-sensitive biomass products, such as high-grade wood/bamboo decorative materials and food ingredients.

In plasma modification, surface aging is a critical factor affecting the durability of performance. A systematic assessment of this process typically requires monitoring the evolution of key characteristics—such as contact angle and surface chemical composition—over timescales ranging from hours to years under controlled conditions (Table 3). By analyzing decay data and constructing kinetic models, the dominant mechanisms driving the aging process can be elucidated. Such a quantitative analysis of temporal behavior provides an essential basis for comparing the stability of different modification processes, evaluating the longevity of modification effects, and determining suitable conditions for subsequent handling or storage.

Table 3. Summary of modification durability under different conditions.

Material Type	Modification Atmosphere	Discharge Mode	Storage Conditions	Aging Time	Changes in Interfacial Properties	Ref.
Zirconia (ZrO₂, 3 mol% yttria-stabilized)	N/A	NTP	Air	Significant hydrophobic recovery within 1 week; slight decrease in surface roughness after 4 weeks	Significant improvement in surface hydrophilicity after plasma treatment, followed by rapid hydrophobic recovery during air storage; surface roughness decreased after 4 weeks, with reduced oxygen-/nitrogen-containing functional group content.	[117]
Carbonized Bamboo	O₂	DBD	Room temperature, ambient air	Significant decay within 1 d; continuous linear decay over 12 d.	The contact angle reduction rate rapidly decreased from 1.25 to 1.02 and continued to decline over 12 days (linear slope: –0.06).	[36]
Bamboo Outer Skin (Green Layer)	N/A	GDP	N/A	12 h	Contact angle increased over time, recovering approximately 30% of the original value after 24 h, indicating a temporary hydrophilic effect.	[69]
Black Spruce Wood	N₂ and N₂/O₂ mixtures	DBD	Natural aging	14 d	Water contact angle gradually approached that of untreated samples, indicating hydrophobic recovery.	[118]
Pine/Beech Wood	Air	RF	Aged for 12 d	12 d	Minor decrease in surface energy, suggesting plasma-induced cross-linking was not dominant.	[119]
Wood-Plastic Composite	Air	DBD	20 °C, 0% RH; 20 °C, 65% RH; 60 °C, 75% RH	Over one week	Changes in surface wettability, hydrophobic recovery; a model for calculating the half-life of contact angle was established.	[120]
Metal Surface (H300LAD Steel)	Air	APP	Air, Water, –20 °C, 30 °C	Several hours to days	Gradual recovery of surface wettability to the untreated state; aging rate influenced by plasma type, storage conditions, and temperature.	[121]
Polyketone Film (Poketon™)	Air/Oxygen	APP	Humidity chamber (room temperature, ambient pressure), isothermal heating	N/A	Changes in wettability, surface energy and its polar/dispersive components; adhesion properties (peel strength) varied with storage conditions.	[122]
PBO/BMI Composite	Argon	ICP, DBD	Air	10–30 d	Grafting of polar functional groups on fiber surface, increased surface free energy, and improved interlaminar shear strength (ILSS); however, aging decay occurred over time.	[123]
Silk Fibroin Film	N₂, H₂O(g)	ICP	Ambient temperature and 60 °C high temperature	PE film treated with N₂ plasma recovered to 10% of original hydrophobic state within 160 h	Silk film maintained hydrophilicity over a 6-week aging period; hydrophobic recovery rate was influenced by aging temperature.	[124]
HDPE/PA12/PA6	Air	AP-μP	Room temperature	Significant aging occurred within 5 h	Contact angle decreased first and then relaxed/recovered; aging rate depended on polymer hydrophilicity (polyamides faster than polyethylene).	[125]
PBO Fiber	Oxygen	DBD	Air	Sharp decline in adhesion within 5 days; continuous decrease in oxygen content over 30 days	Oxygen content decreased from 24.83% to 20.88%, O/C ratio from 0.350 to 0.268; composite adhesion decreased by approximately 18%.	[126]
PET Film	Air	DBD	Environments with varying humidity and temperature	Aging rate influenced by storage conditions: low temperature and low humidity could inhibit aging.	Contact angle increased (hydrophobic recovery).	[127]
PLA Film	N/A	AC	N/A	Aging effect was evaluated as a function of processing parameters (time, power, frequency).	Wettability (contact angle) changed with storage time; processing parameters could modulate the aging rate.	[128]

N/A indicates no data available.

3.3. Influence of Key Process Parameters

Plasma treatment of biomass surfaces presents greater complexity than that of conventional polymers. This complexity results from the intricate interactions between plasma species and the heterogeneous, multicomponent composition of biomass materials (including cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose) and their anisotropic, hierarchical structures. Consequently, significant variations in plasma response are observed among different biomass species [129]. Plasma technology plays a key role in enabling the value-added utilization of biomass materials. The resulting surface modifications (including changes in surface morphology, chemical functionality, and surface energy) are not governed by a single processing parameter. Instead, these modifications result from the combined effects of multiple factors, including the treatment time [130], discharge power [131], treatment distance [132], and gas composition [75,133]. Therefore, elucidating the role of individual parameters and their synergistic optimization is crucial for advancing from empirical trial-and-error approaches to precise and controllable modifications.

3.3.1. Treatment Time

The treatment time is a key temporal parameter governing the degree of surface modification of biomass materials by low-temperature plasma. The influence of the treatment time reflects the kinetics of both physical etching and chemical reactions between highly reactive plasma species and the material surface. Insufficient treatment limits interactions between active species and the surface, resulting in a shallow modified layer or low grafting efficiency of functional groups. Conversely, excessively long treatment can cause over-etching, decomposition of functional groups, or degradation of underlying polymer chains, thereby compromising bulk material properties [134,135]. For a given plasma configuration, establishing a quantitative relationship between the treatment time and modification outcomes is crucial for achieving precise and controllable surface modification.

Studies have shown that low-temperature plasma can induce significant surface modification within very short durations owing to its non-thermal equilibrium nature. For example, Rehn et al. [136] treated black locust wood at room temperature and atmospheric pressure using DBD, achieving effective surface activation in only 1 s. Galmiz et al. [137] further demonstrated that the treatment time can precisely control surface morphology. As thermally modified wood was exposed to low-temperature plasma at a short treatment distance (0.1 mm), a fully covered surface structure formed after 180 s. However, extending the treatment time to 300 s shifted the dominant mechanism toward etching, leading to pore enlargement and coarsening of surface nanostructures.

The treatment time on surface wettability exhibits a complex, non-linear relationship. Short plasma exposures typically reduce the contact angle and increase surface free energy through the rapid grafting of oxygen-containing polar groups. However, this improvement is limited to an optimal time window. Beyond this period, the enhanced wettability may plateau or even decline. For example, Fang et al. [138] reported that during plasma treatment of Pinus yunnanensis wood, the contact angle sharply decreased with increasing treatment time but gradually increased after 300 s. In contrast, surface free energy peaked around 120 s before stabilizing. Similarly, Nguyen et al. [134] found that heat-treated wood exhibited optimal wettability within 20 s. These results confirm the existence of a critical treatment-time threshold, the magnitude of which strongly depends on material properties, modification targets, and processing parameters.

Overall, the treatment time must be carefully balanced with the intended modification objectives. For rapid hydrophilization, exposures of a few seconds to several minutes are often sufficient. To maximize interfacial bonding strength, balancing surface activation with the preservation of bulk material properties is crucial for preventing surface damage and performance loss from excessive treatment.

3.3.2. Discharge Power

In low-temperature plasma surface modification, discharge power is a key energy-input parameter. Discharge power directly determines the density and energy of active species in the plasma, thereby controlling the extent of surface chemical reactions and physical etching [139]. Generally, increasing discharge power amplifies these effects, leading to improved surface wettability and roughness [140]. For example, Wascher et al. [141] demonstrated that higher discharge power increased plasma penetration and modification depth in beech wood. This effect was evidenced by a significant reduction in liquid penetration time with increasing power density. Similarly, Seghini et al. [132] treated flax yarn with oxygen plasma at 50 W and 100 W for 30 min. The results revealed a significant increase in surface roughness at higher power levels owing to chemical etching and ablation of the fiber surface by reactive plasma species.

However, the relationship between discharge power and modification outcome is not strictly linear and often exhibits complex nonlinearity with distinct threshold effects. Rao et al. [36] confirmed this in bamboo, identifying an optimal power range for enhancing surface wettability. The rate of contact-angle reduction increased with power up to a certain point. However, exceeding a peak value (e.g., 140 W) led to diminishing returns, as intensified non-productive collisions among active species reduced energy utilization efficiency. Kan and Man [142] observed a similar trend in atmospheric-pressure plasma treatment of flax fabrics, with 150 W identified as the optimal power. Power levels above this threshold caused over-etching, reduced fiber permeability, and diminished modification effectiveness.

Therefore, optimizing discharge power requires balancing multiple objectives. Power must be sufficient to efficiently drive the desired surface physicochemical changes but limited to prevent thermal damage or excessive etching. This optimization should be integrated with other key parameters, such as the treatment time. For example, higher power can enable shorter treatment durations [143], which facilitates process intensification.

3.3.3. Treatment Distance

In low-temperature plasma surface modification, treatment distance is a key process parameter influencing modification outcomes. Treatment distance alters the spatial gap between the plasma active region and the material surface, thereby directly affecting the energy, density, and lifetime of active species reaching the surface. Adjusting this distance enables precise control over surface morphology, chemical composition, and interfacial functional properties across micro- and macroscale levels [144,145].

Altgen et al. [51] demonstrated that treatment distance significantly influences wood surface modification through control over the transport of short-lived hydrophilic species to the surface. Under short-distance conditions, these active particles can effectively reach the wood surface, thereby counteracting the hydrophobic tendency caused by hemicellulose degradation. Conversely, at longer distances, the energy of active species diminishes during transport, enabling hydrophobic effects to dominate surface properties. Similarly, Kan and Man [146] revealed that in plasma treatment of cotton fabrics, the distance between the plasma jet and the substrate significantly affects modification efficiency. Samples treated at 3 mm exhibited higher surface spot density than those treated at 7 mm. X-ray spectroscopy (XPS) analysis further revealed that the oxygen content on the sample surface varied non-monotonically with treatment distance.

Overall, treatment distance plays a key role in low-temperature plasma surface modification through modulation of the transport and energy of active species. Therefore, optimizing treatment distance is crucial for achieving uniform, stable, and function-oriented surface properties.

Beyond treatment distance, other key controllable parameters in low-temperature plasma modification include working atmosphere, the treatment time, discharge power, gas flow rate, and system pressure. Gas flow rate influences treatment uniformity, as it shapes the plasma plume and controls the spatial distribution of reactive species [147]. System pressure modulates discharge characteristics and reaction efficiency through alteration of the mean free path of gas molecules [148]. The key parameters mentioned above are not isolated variables but rather constitute a complex multivariate system, and different plasma discharge types exhibit distinct typical parameter ranges when processing biomass materials (Table 4). Through active adjustment of this parameter system, researchers can effectively regulate the types, energy, and interaction time of active species reaching the material surface. This, in turn, synergistically influences the evolution of surface morphology and the degree of chemical modification, ultimately determining the material’s interfacial properties. A thorough understanding of the inherent interconnections and synergistic mechanisms within this parameter system is essential for achieving relatively controllable modification processes and for providing reasonable explanations for the discrepancies observed across different studies.

Table 4. Typical process parameter ranges for different plasma discharge types in biomass material treatment.

Discharge Type	Working Atmosphere	Power Density	Treatment Time	Treatment Distance	Characteristics	Ref.
GD	Ar, O₂, N₂, Air	Relatively low (~W/cm²)	Long (tens of seconds–minutes)	Several cm (sample placed within the plasma zone)	High uniformity; primarily chemical modification; capable of penetrating micropores. Aging effect must be controlled for heat-sensitive biomass to prevent thermal damage.	[149,150]
DBD	Air, O₂, N₂, He/O₂ mixture	Medium (up to 10² W/cm²)	Short (seconds–minutes)	Electrode gap 0.1–5 mm	Suitable for in-line processing; faces challenges in uniformity. High flux of reactive species, strong at introducing surface chemistry.	[131,151,152]
Jet	Ar, He (often with trace O₂)	High (localized)	Very short (milliseconds–tens of seconds)	Several mm to cm (remote treatment)	High directionality, suitable for localized treatment. Enriched in reactive species and excited states, featuring combined physical and chemical effects.	[153,154]
RF	Ar, Air	High	Short (seconds–tens of seconds)	Several mm–cm scale	High energy density, high modification efficiency; requires precise control to prevent surface ablation.	[15,155,156]

3.4. Process Optimization for Engineering Applications

To achieve stable and controllable engineering applications, it is essential to move beyond understanding individual factors and progress to the systematic integration and optimization of process parameters. Key parameters do not act independently; their synergistic effects ultimately determine the final surface state [157,158]. For instance, high-power short-duration treatments and low-power long-duration treatments may achieve similar improvements in surface energy, yet they induce different chemical groups, penetration depths, and thermal effects, thereby influencing the uniformity and temporal stability of the modification [159,160]. Therefore, defining a viable processing window requires a deep understanding of parameter interactions.

The optimal processing pathway differs significantly among various biomass materials due to their inherent compositional and structural differences. Typical process characteristics for major materials and objectives are summarized (Table 5). For example, improving the wettability and adhesion of wood and bamboo can be reliably achieved using air or O₂ plasma under moderate power with short treatment time. If aiming for decorative color changes, fine-tuning the energy input is necessary, alongside recognizing the material-specific nature of the color response [161,162]. For polysaccharides like starch, color changes (e.g., yellowing) are directly linked to the degree of granule fragmentation, highlighting the coupling of physical and chemical modifications [113,163,164]. For natural fibers and protein-based substrates, research has focused more on interfacial properties, while systematic data on color effects remain scarce.

Scaling laboratory processes to engineering applications faces two common challenges: the aging behavior of modification effects and process stability/reproducibility. The decay of surface properties is a common phenomenon, making the assessment of performance degradation over time an essential step in engineering design [123]. Simultaneously, transitioning from static laboratory treatment to continuous production introduces engineering variables—such as gas distribution, sample handling, and environmental control—that significantly impact result reproducibility. Consequently, future research must conduct process robustness verification and long-term performance evaluation under conditions that closely resemble real-world applications.

Table 5. Process parameters and effects for plasma modification of biomass materials.

Material Category	Modification Objective	Material	Process Parameters				Effect Validation	Refs.
Material Category	Modification Objective	Material	Gas	Power	Time	Discharge Mode	Effect Validation	Refs.
Wood and Bamboo	1. Improve wettability and adhesion; 2. Induce controllable color change; 3. Surface cleaning and activation	Bamboo	Water vapor	150 W	5 min	GD	Contact angle >110° pre-treatment; became hydrophilic (<20°) post-treatment.	[69]
		Teak Wood	Air	3 kW	N/A	CP	Decrease in lightness; overall color difference (ΔE × ab) increased after treatment.	[111]
		Pine Wood	Air	N/A	1 min	DBD	Degradation of lignin/extractives; increased penetration depth of phenolic resin adhesive; increase in C=O/O–C=O groups and significant improvement in interfacial bonding.	[165]
		Wood	N₂	N/A	N/A	APPJ	Up to 75% removal of DDT contamination from flat wood surfaces.	[166]
		Fagus sylvatica L.	Air	225 W	3 s	DBD	Increased surface free energy, wettability, and oxygen-containing functional groups.	[51]
Starch and Polysaccharides	1. Improve solubility/dispersibility 2. Induce functional color change	Pea Starch (PS)	Air	120 W	21 min	RF	Relative Crystallinity decreased by 6.5%; solubility increased from 6.05 ± 0.38% to 12.37 ± 0.34%.	[167]
Starch and Polysaccharides		Waxy Maize Starch (WMS)	Air	750 W	7 min	APPJ	RC decreased from 46.7% to 42.0%; Water Binding Capacity increased from 105.19% to 131.27%; Solubility Volume increased from 2.96 g/mL to 3.33 g/mL.	[168]
Natural Fibers (Hemp, Cotton, etc.)	1. Optimize composite interface	Coir Fiber	O₂	350 W	30 s	CP	Increased roughness; introduction of new oxygen functional groups on fiber surface; enhanced interfacial bonding with resin matrix.	[169]
Natural Fibers (Hemp, Cotton, etc.)	1. Optimize composite interface	Hemp Fibers	Air	80 W	120 s	DBD	Introduction of COOH groups; wettability improved by up to 5 times.	[170]
Protein-Based Substrates (Protein Films, etc.)	1. Increase surface hydrophilicity 2. Induce cross-linking	Soy Protein	Air	N/A	3 min	DBD	Water contact angle decreased from 87.9° to 77.2°; enhanced elongation at break, reduced WVP, improved thermal properties, and cross-linking of soy protein matrix.	[171]
		Gelatin	Air	N/A	20 min	DBD	Cross-linking of gelatin nanofibers, improving structural stability and water resistance.	[172]
		Protein Film	Ar	50 W	10 min	GD	Increased roughness, introduction of functional groups (e.g., C–O, C=O), and generation of cross-linking.	[173]

N/A indicates no data available.

4. Applications of Low-Temperature Plasma in Surface Modification of Biomass Materials

The natural surface characteristics of biomass materials (such as wood, bamboo, and straw) pose significant challenges for achieving strong adhesive bonds. In wood, surface passivation often results from the migration of extractives. Bamboo has a naturally waxy layer that resists wetting, while straw exhibits poor interfacial adhesion owing to its waxy cuticle and silica content [174]. Therefore, targeted surface modification to enhance interfacial compatibility with adhesives is crucial for improving product performance and reducing manufacturing costs.

4.1. Surface Structures of Wood, Bamboo, and Straw

Although wood, bamboo, and straw are all plant-derived, their distinct surface structures lead to different responses to plasma modification (Table 6).

The hierarchical pore structure of wood and the chemical diversity of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin indicate that modification strategies should target selective etching (Figure 8A1) [175]. Accordingly, researchers have often used low-pressure RF or glow-discharge plasmas (e.g., in Ar or N₂ atmospheres). High-energy ion bombardment preferentially sputters and removes the relatively loose amorphous regions of lignin and hemicellulose. This process selectively exposes the internal crystalline cellulose microfibrils and significantly increases surface roughness and specific surface area (Figure 8A2) [176,177]. This ion bombardment produces layered exfoliation and distinct etching patterns on the wood surface, thereby substantially enlarging cell lumens and pits [44,178]. These changes create favorable conditions for mechanical interlocking with adhesives.

Bamboo surfaces are dense and naturally coated with a siliceous layer and a waxy, hydrophobic barrier (Figure 8B1) [179,180]. Therefore, effective plasma modification of bamboo requires both disruption of this barrier and formation of surface pores. Glow discharge or atmospheric-pressure plasma jets (often oxygen-based) are commonly used for this modification [42]. The modification mechanism involves both physical bombardment and chemical oxidation. Plasma physically generates nanoscale features on the cell wall surface, while reactive oxygen species chemically oxidize surface waxes into hydrophilic groups (Figure 8B2) [69]. This synergy effectively removes the hydrophobic layer and creates nanoscale pores and surface irregularities, thereby significantly increasing surface energy and wettability. Consequently, interfacial bonding is improved, which enhances the performance of bamboo-based composites.

Straw consists of loose fiber bundles coated with silica cells and a hydrophobic cuticle, leading to low surface energy and few reactive sites (Figure 8C1) [181]. To address these limitations, atmospheric-pressure DBD or plasma jets—using air or water vapor as working gases—are commonly used owing to their large treatment area and low cost. These methods physically etch grooves and pits via uniform discharge and chemically oxidize the fiber surface with reactive species [182]. After treatment, distinct protrusions and well-defined micro-/nanoscale grooves form on the fiber surface. These changes significantly increase the specific surface area, expose internal cellulose (Figure 8C2), improve straw dispersibility in composites or adsorption applications, and enhance mechanical and chemical bonding with the matrix [182,183].

Figure 8. (A1) Schematic diagrams of three-dimensional softwood and hardwood structures in tangential, radial, and longitudinal sections [175]; (A2) SEM images of poplar wood surfaces before and after plasma treatment [176]; (B1) Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) mapping images of Layer I and Layer II on bamboo surfaces (dot-like signals indicating silicon distribution) [180]; (B2) SEM images of bamboo surfaces before and after plasma treatment [69]; (C1) Surface morphology of rice straw [181]; (C2) SEM images of wheat straw before and after plasma treatment [182].

Table 6. Comparison of key characteristics in low-temperature plasma surface modification of different biomass materials.

Material Type	Main Structural Characteristics	Initial Surface State and Treatment Objectives	Suitable Plasma Types and Atmospheres	Typical Morphological Changes	Mechanism of Action	Ref.
Wood	Hierarchical pore structure with cell lumens and pits	Some roughness and porosity, but amorphous regions cover cellulose; objective: selectively etch amorphous regions to enlarge pores and expose cellulose microfibrils.	Low-pressure RF/glow discharge (Ar, N₂)	Layered exfoliation, cell wall etching, and pore enlargement	High-energy ion bombardment preferentially removes lignin and hemicellulose (amorphous regions) and preserves crystalline cellulose. This increases specific surface area and enhances resin penetration and micro-interlocking.	[44,176]
Bamboo	Vascular bundles and parenchyma cells, naturally coated with a siliceous layer and wax	Dense, hydrophobic surface hindering resin penetration; objective: break waxy barrier, open the surface structure, and form nanoscale scratches to enhance penetration and anchoring.	Glow discharge/atmospheric-pressure jet (Ar, O₂)	Increased porosity, nanoscale scratches, and disruption of the waxy layer	Physical bombardment disrupts the waxy layer; reactive species increase surface energy and wettability, forming hydrophilic pores that promote resin penetration and interfacial bonding.	[42,69]
Straw	Loose fiber bundles coated with silica cells and a hydrophobic cuticle; loose structure; low surface energy	Hydrophobic surface with few reactive sites; objective: create grooves and pits, increase specific surface area, and expose internal cellulose.	Atmospheric-pressure DBD or jet (air, water vapor)	Protrusions, grooves, pits, and surface loosening	Physical etching forms grooves; reactive species chemically oxidize the surface, thereby introducing polar groups, increasing surface energy, and improving compatibility with polymer matrices.	[182,183]

4.2. Surface Chemical Composition

Low-temperature plasma modifies the surface chemical composition of biomass through direct reactions between ionized gas species and the material. These reactions introduce new functional groups and alter surface composition and reactivity [184].

Treatment of biomass materials in oxygen-containing atmospheres (e.g., O₂, air, or water vapor) oxidizes and polarizes their surfaces. Highly reactive oxygen species generated in the plasma (such as atomic oxygen, hydroxyl radicals, and ozone) readily react with surface hydrocarbon structures. These reactions introduce various polar oxygen-containing functional groups, including carbonyl (C=O), carboxyl (–COOH), and hydroxyl (–OH) groups [177]. Studies on beech wood and wheat straw have shown that oxygen-based plasma treatment significantly enhances signal intensity in XPS and FTIR spectra (Figure 9a) [177,182,185]. Consequently, surface energy and hydrophilicity are substantially increased, providing a basis for enhanced interfacial properties such as adhesion and coating performance.

Treatment of biomass materials with nitrogen- or ammonia-based plasmas enables surface nitridation and amination. Reactive species such as nitrogen atoms, excited nitrogen molecules, and amino radicals graft nitrogen-containing functional groups (e.g., –NH₂ and –C=N–) onto the material surface [184]. These treatments alter the surface polarity of wood or biomass fibers and introduce specific nitrogen-containing structures such as pyridinic and pyrrolic nitrogen [44,178,184]. Consequently, the surface wettability, interfacial bonding strength, and bioactivity of the biomass material are enhanced. For example, these modifications can promote bacterial biofilm formation, highlighting the potential of the treated biomass surfaces for biomedical applications.

The use of gases such as tetrafluoromethane, sulfur hexafluoride, or silanes can create superhydrophobic, oleophobic, and chemically inert surfaces [186]. Fluorine atoms and fluorocarbon radicals generated in the plasma form stable carbon–fluorine (C–F) bonds and thin fluorocarbon polymer layers (e.g., –CF₂–, –CF₃) on the surface [186]. Similarly, Chen et al. [187] treated poplar wood with low-pressure DBD plasma using hexamethyldisiloxane. This treatment led to the formation of Si–O–Si and –Si–(CH₃)ₓ structures on the wood. These dense, thin layers (e.g., fluorocarbon or siloxane networks) significantly reduce surface energy, impart durable hydrophobicity and oleophobicity, and provide effective surface protection (Figure 9b).

Figure 9. (a) AFM and XPS analysis of beech wood before and after coupled RF plasma treatment [185]; (b) The scheme of enhancing mechanism on hydrophobicity of poplar wood surface via DBD plasma treatment [187].

4.3. Surface Wettability

Surface wettability, determined by both the physical structure and chemical composition of a material, directly influences its performance. Low-temperature plasma technology can precisely modulate these surface characteristics, enabling tailored wettability in wood, bamboo, and straw for diverse applications.

Hydrophilization treatment aims to overcome the inherent hydrophobicity of biomass materials. This process primarily modifies material surfaces using oxygen- or nitrogen-containing plasmas [176]. Oxygen plasma treatment is the most prevalent method for achieving hydrophilization [69]. Chen et al. [182] treated wheat straw surfaces with dielectric barrier discharge plasma in a water vapor atmosphere, which reduced the water contact angle (Figure 10a) and improved wettability, leading to a 549% increase in adhesive strength. In contrast, Xiao et al. [188] employed glow discharge plasma magnetron sputtering to deposit an aluminum nanocoating on poplar cross-sections, constructing a superhydrophobic surface. The water contact angle increased significantly with coating duration, reaching 148.9° after 20 s and 157.3° after 30 min (Figure 10b). Reactive oxygen species in the plasma effectively graft oxygen-containing polar groups (e.g., –C=O, –COOH, and –OH) onto the material surface [189]. Studies have shown that treatment with DBD or RF plasma on beech or poplar wood, or glow-discharge plasma on green bamboo, can sharply reduce the contact angle (e.g., from 115° to 14° for bamboo). This synergistic effect significantly improves interfacial bonding quality. For instance, after plasma treatment, the contact angle of beech wood decreased by 17.2%, with a corresponding 10.4% increase in shear strength [177]. Wheat straw-based composites showed a 41.4% reduction in contact angle and an approximately 30-fold improvement in bonding strength [182]. For glass-fiber-reinforced laminated veneer lumber, the water contact angle decreased by 35.9%, while its flexural strength and modulus increased by 36% and 16%, respectively [190]. Carbonized bamboo exhibited contact angle reductions of 55.6%, 36.1%, and 28.7% for its outer skin, middle layer, and inner skin, respectively, ultimately leading to a 17% enhancement in the flexural strength of the final bamboo fiber composite [36].

Figure 10. (a) Water contact angle of wheat straw surface treated by dielectric barrier discharge plasma using water vapor as the working gas atmosphere [182]; (b) Static hydrophobic performance of the Al-coated wood: ultrasonic pretreatment, coating for 20 s, coating for 30 min [188].

In nitrogen-containing atmospheres (e.g., N₂, NH₃), plasma treatment often induces a synergistic amination–oxidation effect. In addition to grafting nitrogen-containing groups, this process involves surface oxidation. For example, low-temperature nitrogen plasma treatment of pine wood waste improved surface wettability and significantly increased bacterial adhesion [178].

In contrast to hydrophilization, hydrophobization creates stable, low-surface-energy barriers that impart durable water-repellent properties to materials [191]. This is typically achieved using fluorine-containing or organosilicon precursors (e.g., C₃F₈ or hexamethyldisiloxane, HMDSO) to deposit protective coatings via plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. A polysiloxane layer with a Si–O–Si backbone and surface-enriched –CH₃ groups is formed using organosilicon monomers such as HMDSO. For example, poplar wood treated with HMDSO exhibits a 330% increase in equilibrium contact angle, indicating significantly enhanced hydrophobicity [187]. Alternatively, plasma treatment of wood with argon/methane mixtures can deposit a hydrocarbon polymer layer that imparts hydrophobicity [60]. Similarly, fluorocarbon gases such as octafluoropropane (C₃F₈) [186] facilitate the formation of fluorocarbon polymer layers. These layers are enriched with –CF₂ and –CF₃ groups on the wood surface with extremely low surface energy. Studies have shown that the contact angle of wood treated with these gases progressively increases with treatment intensity. However, water absorption decreases by an order of magnitude, indicating excellent hydrophobic performance. These hydrophobic surfaces effectively prevent the infiltration and adhesion of water, oils, and other liquids. Consequently, biomass materials such as wood and bamboo exhibit a significantly longer service life and higher stability in humid environments, including outdoor construction and packaging applications.

5. Conclusions and Outlook

This paper provides a systematic review of the application of low-temperature plasma in the surface modification of biomass materials such as wood, bamboo, and straw. Its core contribution lies in constructing an analytical framework that integrates “mechanism–process parameters–performance evolution–temporal behavior.” Unlike previous reviews that focused primarily on principle overviews or case compilations, this work places special emphasis on “temporal stability” as a key engineering bottleneck and strives to extract quantitative relationships and levels of evidence between critical process parameters and surface properties (e.g., wettability, color). By offering a comparative guide to process characteristics categorized by discharge modes and biomass types, along with a comprehensive analysis linking process, structure (surface), and performance (function), this review aims to provide researchers and engineers with a more decision-oriented, systematic perspective for process selection, effect prediction, and stability evaluation. In the future, reliable application of this technology will depend on continued efforts and data accumulation within this framework to address challenges such as large-area uniformity and long-term durability.

Despite its broad potential, the large-scale implementation of plasma-based biomass modification still faces several challenges. To advance from fundamental research to practical engineering applications, future research should focus on three main directions:

(1) Microscopic Mechanistic Insights and Intelligent Process Modeling: Current studies mainly focus on empirical correlations between macroscopic process parameters and modification outcomes. However, the non-equilibrium interactions between plasma species and the complex, multicomponent surfaces of biomass remain unclear at the molecular level. Future research should integrate in situ spectroscopy, surface analysis, and plasma diagnostics to monitor reaction intermediates and surface evolution in real time. Building on these insights, machine learning and artificial intelligence can be used to analyze multidimensional, high-throughput experimental and simulation data. This approach would enable the development of cross-scale predictive models linking plasma parameters to surface interactions and final properties. These models could facilitate the digital design and intelligent optimization of plasma processes, shifting the paradigm from trial-and-error experimentation toward theory-guided prediction. For example, in the optimization of bonding processes involving plasma surface treatment, research has demonstrated that AI methods employing Bayesian optimization and Gaussian process modeling can efficiently construct complex relationship models between plasma treatment parameters (such as power, time, and gas composition) and joint strength or production cost, and subsequently guide experiments. Compared to traditional expert experience-based methods, this approach can identify the optimal combination of process parameters with a 40% reduction in the experimental budget, significantly lowering costs while ensuring performance [185]. This provides a successful paradigm for establishing similar intelligent process models in the field of biomass modification, namely using AI to learn from limited experimental data to accurately predict and recommend optimal plasma treatment strategies.

(2) Durability Assurance and Function-Driven Precision Design: Achieving uniform and stable modification across large or complex-shaped biomass surfaces remains a key challenge for industrial applications. Future research should focus on novel electrode structures and discharge modes (e.g., array-type DBDs and atmospheric-pressure plasma jet arrays) to improve spatial uniformity. Moreover, synergistic hybrid strategies—combining plasma activation with graft polymerization, sol–gel coatings, or other techniques—should be explored to construct stable interfacial transition layers that preserve surface properties such as hydrophilicity and adhesion. Notably, research objectives should extend beyond general adhesion enhancement toward the precise design of surfaces for specific functions. In this process, AI can serve as a key tool for achieving precise functional design and rapidly identifying optimal processing windows. For instance, in research on sintering functional nanocoatings using atmospheric pressure plasma jets, faced with multiple complex process variables affecting film conductivity, researchers employed Bayesian optimization and machine learning. They successfully modeled and optimized seven key variables, improving film conductivity by 99.2% after only a few experimental rounds while achieving efficient sintering at extremely low substrate temperatures [186]. This case demonstrates that AI/ML can effectively address the challenge of optimizing processes with multi-parameter, non-linear relationships. In the future, this approach can be adapted to optimize plasma-based composite treatments aimed at specific biomass surface functionalities such as antibacterial properties, barrier performance, and sensing capabilities, thereby advancing the technology from “uniform treatment” to “precision functional engineering.”

(3) Intelligent System Integration and Technical Standardization: For large-scale applications, developing low-cost, reliable, and modular plasma equipment capable of continuous atmospheric-pressure operation is crucial. Next-generation systems should integrate sensing technologies (e.g., optical emission spectroscopy, high-speed imaging) with adaptive control algorithms for real-time plasma diagnostics and dynamic adjustment of process parameters, ensuring consistent treatment outcomes. Additionally, establishing comprehensive technical standards and databases (including material pretreatment, plasma process windows, post-treatment, and performance evaluation) is crucial for supporting consistent application. In this context, machine learning demonstrates the potential to build standardized predictive tools. For example, in the treatment of biomaterials with low-temperature atmospheric plasma, research has utilized machine learning algorithms to analyze historical data, establishing regression models that can accurately predict output surface properties (such as contact angle and roughness, R² > 0.93) based on input parameters (e.g., power, aging effect) [187]. Such models essentially function as repeatable and interpretable “digital standards,” allowing users to inversely determine process parameters based on target performance. This lays the groundwork for establishing process specifications and performance databases for the plasma modification of biomass materials. Furthermore, constructing a virtual process platform using digital twin technology can rapidly recommend standardized process solutions for specific materials and performance targets, thereby accelerating the industrialization of the technology.

Additionally, the assessment of environmental benefits and safety is an essential step for the industrialization of low-temperature plasma technology. As a dry, nearly solvent-free physicochemical process, this technology holds significant potential for reducing the wastewater and toxic chemicals typically generated by conventional wet processes, aligning with green manufacturing trends. However, its industrial application must simultaneously address the environmental and safety risks associated with its operation. First, atmospheric-pressure air discharges produce gaseous by-products such as ozone (O₃) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x), necessitating exhaust-gas treatment systems [188]. Second, the equipment involves high-voltage operation and potential ultraviolet radiation, requiring strict electrical safety measures and physical protection design [189]. Furthermore, issues including the safe management of process gases, control of large-area uniformity during treatment, and the potential release of particulates from biomass materials under plasma exposure must be resolved through targeted engineering design and standardized operating procedures [190]. Therefore, the “green” and “safe” attributes of this technology are not inherent but highly dependent on thorough engineering design and control measures throughout the entire process, as well as the future establishment and improvement of relevant industry standards.

Overall, the application of low-temperature plasma technology for modifying biomass materials holds clear prospects, yet its mature adoption depends on breaking through several bottlenecks. Currently, the understanding of surface interaction mechanisms and the laws governing temporal stability remains incomplete, the reproducibility of processes for specific functions needs to be improved, and practical engineering challenges—such as large-area treatment, production-line integration, and standardization—remain. Only by steadily advancing progress at both fundamental and engineering levels can this technology reliably support the high-value utilization of biomass resources and become a viable process route within a sustainable materials system.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and Supervision, Z.L. and L.X.; Investigation and Data Curation, Y.Z. and Y.M.; Writing—Original Draft, Y.Z. and Y.M.; Writing—Review and Editing, Y.Z., Y.M., J.W. and Y.L.; Visualization, Y.Z. and Y.W.; Funding Acquisition, Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was financially supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2023YFE0108300), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32572165), Central Government Guiding Fund for Local Science and Technology Development-Rural Revitalization (20261BDF030003), “Unveiling the List and Leading the Way” Project of Fuzhou City (2023JDA09), Forest and Grassland Science and Technology Innovation Development and Research Project of the National Forestry and Grassland Administration (2024132015), and Qing Lan Project (Excellent Young Backbone Teacher).

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

Authors Youqing Wu and Jianhua Wu were employed by the company Jiangxi Zhuangchi Home Technology Co., Ltd. The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

DC	Direct Current
AC	Alternating Current
DBD	Dielectric Barrier Discharge
RF	Radio Frequency
CCP	Capacitively Coupled Plasma
ROS	Reactive Oxygen Species
RNS	Reactive Nitrogen Species
ICP	Inductively Coupled Plasma
HDPE	High-Density Polyethylene
PI	Polyimide
PA12	Polyamide 12
PA6	Polyamide 6
PET	Polyethylene Terephthalate
PS	Potato Starch
SV	Swelling Volume
WBC	Water-Binding Capacity
RC	Relative Crystallinity
DDT	Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

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Zhang, Y.; Ma, Y.; Wu, J.; Wu, Y.; Li, Y.; Xu, L.; Lou, Z. A Review of Low-Temperature Plasma for Surface Engineering of Biomass Materials. Forests 2026, 17, 251. https://doi.org/10.3390/f17020251

AMA Style

Zhang Y, Ma Y, Wu J, Wu Y, Li Y, Xu L, Lou Z. A Review of Low-Temperature Plasma for Surface Engineering of Biomass Materials. Forests. 2026; 17(2):251. https://doi.org/10.3390/f17020251

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Yanghong, Yan Ma, Jianhua Wu, Youqing Wu, Yanjun Li, Lei Xu, and Zhichao Lou. 2026. "A Review of Low-Temperature Plasma for Surface Engineering of Biomass Materials" Forests 17, no. 2: 251. https://doi.org/10.3390/f17020251

APA Style

Zhang, Y., Ma, Y., Wu, J., Wu, Y., Li, Y., Xu, L., & Lou, Z. (2026). A Review of Low-Temperature Plasma for Surface Engineering of Biomass Materials. Forests, 17(2), 251. https://doi.org/10.3390/f17020251

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A Review of Low-Temperature Plasma for Surface Engineering of Biomass Materials

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Types of Low-Temperature Plasma

2.1. Working Atmosphere

2.2. Operating Pressure

2.3. Discharge Modes

3. Multiscale Mechanisms and Property Regulation in Plasma Surface Modification

3.1. Mechanisms of Low-Temperature Plasma Surface Treatment

3.1.1. Surface Etching

3.1.2. Surface Functionalization

3.2. Aging Effect

3.3. Influence of Key Process Parameters

3.3.1. Treatment Time

3.3.2. Discharge Power

3.3.3. Treatment Distance

3.4. Process Optimization for Engineering Applications

4. Applications of Low-Temperature Plasma in Surface Modification of Biomass Materials

4.1. Surface Structures of Wood, Bamboo, and Straw

4.2. Surface Chemical Composition

4.3. Surface Wettability

5. Conclusions and Outlook

Author Contributions

Funding

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of Interest

Abbreviations

References

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