Spatial Patterns of Stem Tissue Carbon Content in Fagaceae Species from Typical Forests in China
by
,
Chengke Dong
1,2, 
Yulong Liu
2,3,
Luna Zhang
2,4,
Zhecheng Liu
2,4,
Huabin Zhao
2,4,
Wenjing Li
1,2,
Xiaoyi Chao
2,4 and
Xingchang Wang
2,4,* 1
College of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
2
Key Laboratory of Sustainable Forest Ecosystem Management-Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
3
Heilongjiang Ecological Institute, Heilongjiang Academy of Forestry, Harbin 150081, China
4
Heilongiang Maoershan Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(9), 1478; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091478
Submission received: 8 August 2025
/
Revised: 7 September 2025
/
Accepted: 12 September 2025
/
Published: 18 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
Abstract
Fagaceae plants are dominant species in subtropical and temperate forests in China. Studying the geographical pattern of their carbon contents can provide key parameter support for high-precision forest carbon accounting. To investigate the spatial variation and influencing factors of carbon content in bark, sapwood, and heartwood, stem samples from 168 individual trees belonging to 41 species of 5 genera in the Fagaceae family were collected from different regions of China. Carbon was determined with the dry combustion method using an elemental analyzer. The variation in carbon content was partitioned, carbon content among tissues were compared, spatial patterns with latitude and longitude and relative importance of interpreting variables were quantified. The carbon content of stem tissues ranged from 411 to 563 mg·g−1. Variation was primarily driven by geographical location (34%–53%), followed by residuals (26%–40%). The inter-species difference also made significant contributions, ranging from 23% (bark) and 21% (sapwood) to 18% (heartwood). Generally, the carbon content among the three tissues followed the order: bark (494 ± 26 mg g−1) (±SD) < sapwood (503 ± 21 mg g−1) < heartwood (509 ± 23 mg g−1). There was an obvious geographical variation pattern in stem carbon content. The carbon content of different tissues gradually decreased with northward latitude and westward longitude. Aridity index (with a relative importance of 22%), longitude (38%), and solar radiation (27%) were the most important driving factors of bark, sapwood, and heartwood C, while the influence of temperature and precipitation was weak. The results highlight the importance of geographical and environmental gradients over taxonomic differences and provide critical parameters for improving forest carbon storage estimates in China.
1. Introduction
Carbon forms the basic skeleton of organisms through carbon chains and is the most abundant life element in living beings [1]. Plant carbon content refers to the dry mass fraction of carbon elements in plants, usually expressed as mass percentage or milligrams of carbon per gram of dry matter (mg·g−1). Although carbon is one of the most abundant elements in organisms, its content varies significantly among plant tissues (organs), tree species, plant functional groups, and climate zones [2,3]. Forests are the largest and most stable global carbon sinks, and living stems are the largest carbon pool in global forests [4], making the study of variations in stem carbon content highly significant.
Global integrated data show that stem carbon content ranges from 305 to 607 mg g−1 [2], with the maximum value being approximately twice the minimum. Ignoring such differences among tissues and species and directly using default carbon content values (e.g., 500 mg g−1) to estimate forest carbon storage will lead to significant errors. Therefore, accurate determination of carbon content in different tree species not only helps to understand the reasons for the large variation of carbon as a skeletal element but also provides necessary basic data for improving research on local and national forest carbon storage and carbon cycles.
The variation in plant carbon content mainly depends on plant species [2], growth environment [5], organ/tissue [6], and tree size/age [7]. The large-scale pattern of tree carbon content is related to both tree species turnover and possible intraspecific changes, but the relative contributions of interspecific and intraspecific changes to the variation in tree carbon content with latitude remain unclear. On a large scale, the variation in wood carbon content among tree species is related to climatic variables such as annual average temperature, precipitation, and temperature seasonality. There is a negative correlation between wood carbon content and annual average temperature [5]. However, the large-scale spatial pattern of carbon content in important tree species in China and its influencing factors are still unclear. In addition, stems can be radially divided into bark, sapwood, and heartwood, which have different properties and physiological-ecological functions, so their carbon contents may also differ. The order of carbon content among the three stem tissues of tree species in forests of northeast China varies by species. Out of the nine ring-porous wood species, heartwood has the highest carbon content, while for diffuse-porous wood species, bark has the highest [6]. For Quercus mongolica in Fagaceae, sapwood carbon content is significantly higher than that of bark, with heartwood in the middle [8]. However, studies on differences in carbon content among stem tissues in other regions are still scarce, which to some extent limits the accurate estimation of forest carbon storage and carbon sinks in China.
Fagaceae, as a key dominant group in global forest ecosystems, has extremely high species diversity and ecological importance. In the global wood carbon content dataset [9], Fagaceae (335 records) is the third largest data source, following Pinaceae (927 records) and Fabaceae (383 records). Subtropical Asia is the second global center of Fagaceae diversity, next to the southern USA (https://about.worldfloraonline.org/tens/fagaceae, accessed on 1 September 2025). Fagaceae trees are widely distributed in subtropical to temperate forests in China, with seven typical genera (Castanea, Castanopsis, Cyclobalanopsis, Fagus, Lithocarpus, Quercus, and Formanodendron) [10], and often becomes constructive species [11]. Castanopsis and Lithocarpus are Asian endemic genera. Given the important role of Fagaceae plants in forest construction and carbon sinks, we systematically investigated the stem carbon content of Fagaceae species in typical forest ecosystems in China, analyzed the differences in carbon content among tissues and the characteristics of geographical spatial patterns, and identified the role of geographical driving forces. The research results not only deepen the ecological understanding of carbon storage strategies in woody plants but also provide key parameters for high-precision forest carbon accounting.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Overview of Study Sites
In this study, stem samples were collected from 168 individual trees of 41 species (including varieties) of 5 genera in Fagaceae from 13 sites in different forest biomes (tropical, subtropical, warm-temperate, temperate, and temperate-boreal transition forests) across China. These sites were distributed over an extensive geographical region, ranging roughly 31 degrees of latitude and 21 degrees of longitude. The most southern site was a tropical seasonal forest, the Ganzhaling Provincial Nature Reserve in Hainan Province; the most northern site was a temperate-boreal transition forest, located in the Pingshan Forest Farm of Heihe City, Heilongjiang Province. The most western site was a subtropical evergreen-deciduous mixed broad-leaved forest, the Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve in Guizhou Province, and the most eastern site was a temperate coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest, the Muling Taxus cuspidate National Nature Reserve in Heilongjiang Province. The number of Fagaceae species, number of sampled trees, and climate information at each site are shown in Table 1. The extensive sampling region and rich species provide a unique dataset for studying geographical patterns.
2.2. Sample Collection and Carbon Content Determination
The field sampling was conducted in the summers from 2020 to 2025. Healthy adult individuals were selected for stem tissues sampling, and the longitude and latitude of each tree were recorded. At breast height of each tree, at least five wood cores (5.15 mm diameter from bark to pith) were drilled using an increment borer. Then, a longitudinal bark piece about 3 cm wide and 4–8 cm long was chiseled at breast height to obtain a bulk bark sample. After sampling, the wounds were sealed with Vaseline or lubricating oil to prevent pathogen invasion. In the laboratory, the core samples were divided into sapwood and heartwood according to color and moisture status [6]. The sapwood had higher water content and was light-colored versus heartwood; thus, sapwood was usually semi-transparent under sunlight (or artificial beam light). The sapwood–heartwood transition zone, if present, was classified as heartwood. Samples were then dried at 65 °C for 48 h and ground into powder.
The carbon contents of stem tissues were determined by the dry combustion method using an elemental analyzer (Multi N/C 2100 S, Analytik Jena AG, Jena, Germany). Approximately 40 mg of dried samples were accurately weighed into ceramic boats and burned in the HT1300 solid module at 1000 °C for at least 90 s to determine the carbon content (mg·g−1) [6]. To ensure the measurement accuracy, one daily factor (calcium carbonate) was set to calibrate the measurements for every 20 samples.
2.3. Data Analysis
To explore the sources of variation in wood carbon content, a Linear Mixed-Effects Model (LMM) was used for nested variance decomposition to quantify the contributions of sites, species, and genera to the variation in carbon content of different tissues [12]. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan post hoc tests were used to examine differences in carbon content among tissues. Ordinary least squares regression models were used to analyze the patterns of stem carbon content with latitude and longitude. In addition to linear models, polynomial regression models were used when necessary [5]. An XGBoost regression model using the R 4.4.3 package “xgboost 2.1.1” was used to quantify the relative importance of 6 variables (longitude, latitude, annual average temperature, annual precipitation, solar radiation, and aridity index) to changes in carbon content. Climatic driving data were obtained from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA5 reanalysis dataset (ERA5, https://developers.google.com/earth-engine/datasets/catalog/ECMWF_ERA5_LAND_HOURLY, accessed on 20 August 2025), based on the geographical coordinates (longitude and latitude) of the sites. Parameters such as temperature, precipitation, surface solar radiation, and potential evapotranspiration during 2014–2024 were extracted using spatial interpolation methods. The Aridity Index (AI) was calculated as the ratio of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (AI = P/PET). To enhance data reliability, the mean annual temperature and annual precipitation observed from the site meteorological stations were integrated to verify the regional applicability of the reanalysis data.
3. Results
3.1. Basic Characteristics of Carbon Content in Different Stem Tissues
The carbon content of stem tissues from 168 individual trees of 41 species in 5 genera of Fagaceae ranged from 412 to 563 mg·g−1, with an average of 502 mg g−1 and a coefficient of variation of approximately 5%. The results of variance decomposition using the mixed-effects model showed that the variation in stem carbon content among bark, sapwood, and heartwood tissues of Fagaceae species exhibited hierarchical distribution characteristics (Figure 1): spatial heterogeneity (variation among sites) was the dominant factor (contribution rate 34%–53%), followed by variation at the species level (18%–23%), while variation at the genus level was weak (<5%), and unexplained variation ranged from 26% to 40%.
The species-mean data were listed in Table 2. For bark, the lowest value for bark (457 mg g−1) and sapwood (473 mg g−1) both occurred in Quercus dentata, while that for heartwood (464 mg g−1) was in Castanopsis hainanensis. The highest carbon content values for bark (540 ± 4 mg g−1), sapwood (561 ± 2 mg g−1), and heartwood (561 ± 3 mg g−1) were all from Castanopsis tonkinensis.
3.2. Comparison of Carbon Content in Different Stem Tissues
Among the three tissues, the carbon content of bark was usually the lowest (Figure 2). The carbon content of bark (494 ± 26 mg·g−1, mean ± SD) of all species was significantly lower than that of sapwood (503 ± 21 mg·g−1) and heartwood (509 ± 23 mg g−1), based on one-way ANOVA (p < 0.001). For Castanopsis, a dominant genus in subtropical China, the carbon content of bark (504 ± 22 mg·g−1) was significantly lower than that of heartwood (514 ± 29 mg g−1), with sapwood intermediate (505 ± 24 mg·g−1). Quercus, a dominant genus in temperate forests, followed the order: bark (486 ± 26 mg·g−1) < sapwood (497 ± 16 mg·g−1) < heartwood (505 ± 20 mg g−1).
3.3. Geographical Patterns and Influencing Factors of Stem Tissues Carbon Contents
In geographical space, the carbon content of different stem tissues of Fagaceae species in China generally decreased with northward latitude and westward longitude (Figure 3). Among the three tissues, the carbon content of bark showed the strongest trends with longitude and latitude, with R2 values of 0.25 and 0.27, respectively. For every 1° increase in latitude and longitude, the bark carbon content decreased by 1.6 and 2.0 mg·g−1, respectively (Figure 2a,d). For every 1° increase in latitude, the carbon content of sapwood and heartwood decreased at a rate of approximately 0.8 mg g−1 and 0.6 mg g−1, respectively (Figure 2b,c). The carbon content of sapwood showed a quadratic polynomial relationship with longitude (R2 = 0.20, Figure 2e), and the carbon content of heartwood decreased at a rate of approximately 0.6 mg·g−1 for every 1° eastward increase in longitude (Figure 2f).
The XGBoost regression model showed that the contribution of influencing factors to the carbon content varied greatly among the three stem tissues (Figure 3). The R2 values of the model were 0.35 (bark), 0.37 (sapwood), and 0.50 (heartwood), respectively. The most important factor affecting bark carbon content was aridity index (relative importance = 22%), the second most important factor was bark thickness (relative importance = 19%). The most important factor for sapwood carbon content was longitude (38%) and then DBH (21%). The most important factor for heartwood carbon content was solar radiation (27%), followed by mean annual precipitation (18%). The relative importances of mean annual temperature and annual precipitation were very low for bark and sapwood carbon.
4. Discussion
Many efforts have been made to improve wood carbon fractions for forest carbon estimation [13]. The wood (excluding bark tissue) carbon content of Fagaceae species in this study (506 mg·g−1) was slightly higher than the global mean wood carbon content (476 mg·g−1) [1] or that of deciduous broad-leaved tree stems (477 mg g−1) and evergreen broad-leaved tree stems (478 mg g−1) [2]. The variation among sites was significantly greater than that at the species and genus levels, indicating that geographical and environmental gradients have a stronger effect on wood carbon compared to species evolutionary history. Similarly, among-site variation in the leaf carbon contents of four deciduous Quercus species in China also played a dominant role in total variation [14]. For 17 tree species in the Haliburton Forest and Wildlife Reserve in North America, coniferous and broad-leaved groups dominated the variation in carbon contents of tissues other than bark [12]. The main effect of species had accounted for 39% of total variance of carbon for 32 neotropical tree species [15]. These results suggested that inter-site might be more important than inter-species (within a family) variations in carbon. In addition, the unexplained variation for our data exceeded 30%, mainly reflecting individual heterogeneity and measurement errors. Future studies need to better consider the inter-site variation and the sampling errors caused by intraspecific variation.
For all Fagaceae species, as well as Castanopsis and Quercus, the carbon content followed the order: bark < sapwood < heartwood (Figure 1). In a recent global dataset, the carbon content of only 33 sapwood (471–541 mg g−1) and 28 heartwood (471–551 mg g−1) records are roughly equivalent [9]. In subtropical China, mean stem wood carbon (449 mg g−1) was slightly higher than that of bark (43.3 mg g−1) for six broad-leaved tree species [16]. In northeastern China, the order of the three stem tissues varied among species. The bark carbon was between sapwood and heartwood for 32 temperate species [6]; the bark carbon of Ulmus laciniata and Acer mono was significantly lower than that of wood, while that of Betula and coniferous trees was higher than that of wood [8]. The bark carbon of major broad-leaved tree species in Hunan Province was significantly lower than that of wood [17]. In Europe, the stem tissues carbon contents of two Quercus species also followed the order: bark < sapwood < heartwood [18], but the sapwood carbon of three coniferous species was significantly lower than heartwood carbon, with bark carbon intermediate [19]. In contrast, a study on 12 broad-leaved tree species in temperate forests in North America showed that bark (518 mg g−1) had the highest carbon content, and heartwood (481 mg g−1) was slightly higher than sapwood (478 mg g−1). The general higher carbon content in heartwood than in sapwood may be due to the formation of tyloses and other substances when sapwood is converted into heartwood, which may increase the carbon content of heartwood.
The carbon content of stem tissues of Fagaceae species in China decreased with northward latitude and westward longitude (Figure 2). Consistent with this pattern, the leaf carbon content of five deciduous Quercus species in China also showed a decreasing trend with increasing latitude and longitude [14]. The inclusion of many coniferous species with high carbon content in cold northern regions in the global dataset [20] may lead to the decreasing trend of wood carbon content with increasing mean annual temperature [5]. Among the three stem tissues, bark was more sensitive to changes in longitude and latitude (Figure 3), which was similar to the global pattern where bark was most sensitive to climate change [5]. The contribution of temperature and precipitation factors, which have been widely considered in previous studies, was generally low except for heartwood (Figure 4). Unexpectedly, among the studied factors, longitude was the factor with the greatest contribution for sapwood carbon. These findings suggest that, unlike local studies emphasizing stress species differences [3,6,21], future research on large-scale C content should focus on climatic and geographical factors other than temperature and precipitation, such as aridity index and solar radiation.
Despite the new findings, our study still has some limitations. Firstly, we mainly explored the effects of two biotic factors influencing stem carbon content, i.e., DBH and tree height. Previous studies also found that stem carbon content increased as trees grew larger and older [7,22,23,24]. Future research may further test the effects of additional biotic factors, such as tree age [7], wood density [6,22,23,24], growth rate [6,22], etc. The carbon content could be as high as 620–622 mg g−1 for old-growth Fagus sylvatica [25]. Secondly, we only reported the tissue-specific carbon contents, up-scaling the tissue-specific carbon content to whole-tree biomass weighted means [3,22], and plot means [22], which will directly give suggestions for accurate estimating forest carbon storage. Thirdly, we ignored volatile carbon due to the oven-drying treatment of the stem samples [19,24]. Finally, we did not separate the subsections of heartwood, i.e., juvenile and mature wood [24], which would underestimate the real carbon contents.
5. Conclusions
This study demonstrated that stem tissue carbon content in Chinese Fagaceae species exhibits clear spatial patterns, decreasing with increasing latitude and longitude. Among stem tissues, carbon content overall increased in the order of bark (494 ± 26 mg g−1) < sapwood (503 ± 21 mg g−1) < heartwood (509 ± 23 mg g−1). Variation was influenced more strongly by geographical and environmental factors than by species or genus differences. Bark showed the greatest sensitivity to spatial gradients, while factors such as aridity index, solar radiation, and longitude differentially affected carbon content among stem tissues. These findings underscored the necessity of incorporating spatial and climatic variables, rather than using uniform carbon conversion coefficients, in forest carbon accounting. The results provide a scientific basis for improving the accuracy of regional and national carbon sink estimates in forest ecosystems.
Author Contributions
XW designed the study. C.D., Y.L., L.Z., H.Z., Z.L., W.L., X.C. and X.W. conducted the sample collection and C measurement. Z.L. and L.Z. analyzed the data under guidance of X.W., C.D. and Y.L. drafted the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program (2021YFD220040105).
Data Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments
We thank all the site managers for logistical support in the field sampling, and many students for their help with processing the samples.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
Variance decomposition for carbon contents in three stem tissues of Fagaceae species.
Figure 2.
Comparison of carbon contents in three stem tissues of species for Fagaceae and each genus. The boxes represent quartiles, and the error bars represent 1.5 times the interquartile range. Different lowercase letters indicate significantly different groups.
Figure 2.
Comparison of carbon contents in three stem tissues of species for Fagaceae and each genus. The boxes represent quartiles, and the error bars represent 1.5 times the interquartile range. Different lowercase letters indicate significantly different groups.
Figure 3.
Latitudinal and longitudinal patterns of carbon content in different stem tissues of Fagaceae species. The regression line (dark gray) and the 95% confidence interval (light gray) are given.
Figure 3.
Latitudinal and longitudinal patterns of carbon content in different stem tissues of Fagaceae species. The regression line (dark gray) and the 95% confidence interval (light gray) are given.
Figure 4.
Relative importance of influencing factors on carbon content in different stem tissues of Fagaceae species based on the XGBoost regression model (version 2.1.1). (a) Bark, (b) Sapwood, (c) Heartwood.
Figure 4.
Relative importance of influencing factors on carbon content in different stem tissues of Fagaceae species based on the XGBoost regression model (version 2.1.1). (a) Bark, (b) Sapwood, (c) Heartwood.
Table 1.
Basic information on tree species sampling.
| No. | Site | No. of Species (No. of Trees) | Species (No. of Trees) | Lat. (°N) | Long. (°E) | Eel. (m) | MAT (°C) | PPT (mm) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ganshiling | 4 (7) | Castanopsis hainanensis (4), Quercus edithiae (2), Castanopsis jucunda (2), Lithocarpus corneus (1) | 18.39 | 109.65 | 300–330 | 25 | 1800 |
| 2 | Wuzhishan | 6 (11) | Castanopsis tonkinensis (3), Quercus disciformis (2), Lithocarpus silvicolarum (2), Lithocarpus handelianus (2), Lithocarpus fenzelianus (1), Lithocarpus hancei (1) | 18.91 | 109.68 | 700–810 | 21 | 2400 |
| 3 | Qingyunshan | 9 (19) | Castanopsis kawakamii (4), Castanopsis faberi (4), Castanopsis hystrix (3), Castanopsis carlesii (2), Castanopsis fargesii (2), Lithocarpus haipinii (1), Castanopsis fissa (1), Quercus glauca (1), Quercus chungii (1) | 24.31 | 114.24 | 430–590 | 19.5 | 1638 |
| 4 | Dagangshan | 9 (17) | Castanopsis fargesii (3), Castanopsis sclerophylla (3), Castanopsis tibetana (1), Quercus glauca (4), Quercus gilva (2), Quercus myrsinifolia (2), Castanea mollissima (1), Lithocarpus harlandii (1) | 27.59 | 114.56 | 400–700 | 15.8 | 1591 |
| 5 | Fanjingshan | 7 (19) | Castanopsis fargesii (3), Castanea henryi (3), Castanea seguinii (3), Castanopsis tibetana (3), Fagus longipetiolata (3), Quercus acutissima (3), Quercus myrsinifolia (1) | 27.83 | 108.75 | 540–690 | 14 | 1800 |
| 6 | Fengyangshan | 10 (18) | Castanopsis eyrei (4), Castanopsis carlesii (1), Castanea henryi (1), Fagus longipetiolata (1), Quercus stewardiana (5), Quercus multinervis (1), Quercus serrata (1), Lithocarpus brevicaudatus (1), Lithocarpus polystachyus (2), Lithocarpus hancei (1) | 27.89 | 119.16 | 1350–1460 | 12.3 | 2400 |
| 7 | Baotianman | 4 (19) | Castanea mollissima (4), Quercus aliena var. acutiserrata (6), Quercus serrata (4), Quercus variabilis (5) | 33.49 | 111.93 | 1130–1380 | 10.3 | 936 |
| 8 | Xianrendong | 6 (23) | Castanea mollissima (3), Quercus acutissima (5), Quercus aliena (2), Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata (1), Quercus dentata (3), Quercus mongolica (6), Quercus variabilis (3) | 39.98 | 122.96 | 150–200 | 8.7 | 799 |
| 9 | Daqingshan | 1 (3) | Quercus wutaishanica (3) | 40.96 | 111.67 | 1580 | 4 | 360 |
| 10 | Qingyuan | 1 (14) | Quercus mongolica (14) | 41.85 | 124.94 | 750–850 | 5.9 | 794 |
| 11 | Muling | 1 (12) | Quercus mongolica (12) | 43.49 | 129.45 | 540–690 | 3.8 | 530 |
| 12 | Maoershan | 1 (3) | Quercus mongolica (3) | 45.39 | 127.63 | 440–460 | 2.8 | 773 |
| 13 | Heihe | 1 (3) | Quercus mongolica (3) | 49.56 | 126.92 | 360–380 | −2 | 500 |
Note: The number in the brackets is the number of trees sampled. Lat., Long., and Eel. are latitude, longitude, and elevation, respectively. MAT and PPT are mean annual temperature and total annual precipitation based on many years’ observations, respectively.
Table 2.
Means and standard deviations of stem tissue carbon contents by species.
| Species | N | Bark | Sapwood | Heartwood |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Castanea henryi | 4 | 496 (32) | 515 (19) | 513 (13) |
| Castanea mollissima | 8 | 500 (21) | 508 (22) | 499 (14) |
| Castanea seguinii | 3 | 526 (7) | 544 (2) | 531 (11) |
| Castanopsis carlesii | 3 | 512 (4) | 492 (18) | 508 (9) |
| Castanopsis eyrei | 4 | 484 (15) | 507 (7) | 520 (22) |
| Castanopsis fargesii | 8 | 520 (6) | 513 (15) | 529 (19) |
| Castanopsis fissa | 1 | 469 | 475 | 482 |
| Castanopsis sclerophylla | 3 | 532 (6) | 503 (9) | 555 (2) |
| Castanopsis tibetana | 4 | 497 (11) | 524 (23) | 530 (13) |
| Castanopsis tonkinensis | 3 | 540 (4) | 561 (2) | 561 (3) |
| Castanopsis faberi | 4 | 491 (15) | 490 (20) | 499 (7) |
| Castanopsis hainanensis | 3 | 503 (11) | 485 (31) | 464 (9) |
| Castanopsis hystrix | 3 | 490 (11) | 489 (4) | 493 (1) |
| Castanopsis jucunda | 2 | 478 (15) | 503 (1) | 491 (14) |
| Castanopsis kawakamii | 4 | 494 (33) | 489 (7) | 494 (11) |
| Fagus longipetiolata | 4 | 500 (16) | 517 (17) | 517 (19) |
| Lithocarpus corneus | 1 | 504 | 543 | 501 |
| Lithocarpus fenzelianus | 1 | 519 | 530 | 531 |
| Lithocarpus hancei | 2 | 509 (52) | 516 (22) | 515 (25) |
| Lithocarpus handelianus | 2 | 514 (2) | 552 (5) | 544 |
| Lithocarpus harlandii | 1 | 513 | 499 | 491 |
| Lithocarpus silvicolarum | 2 | 531 (8) | 529 (11) | 530 (12) |
| Lithocarpus brevicaudatus | 1 | 485 | 522 | 496 |
| Lithocarpus haipinii | 1 | 502 | 473 | 476 |
| Lithocarpus polystachyus | 2 | 499 (19) | 499 (18) | 508 (6) |
| Quercus acutissima | 8 | 499 (15) | 514 (12) | 532 (8) |
| Quercus aliena | 2 | 492 (11) | 516 (28) | 513 (21) |
| Quercus aliena var. acutiserrata | 7 | 477 (25) | 484 (16) | 480 (6) |
| Quercus chungii | 1 | 472 | 487 | 470 |
| Quercus dentata | 3 | 457 (15) | 528 (6) | 527 (10) |
| Quercus disciformis | 2 | 538 (15) | 520 (18) | 533 (2) |
| Quercus gilva | 2 | 470 (10) | 492 (18) | 538 (6) |
| Quercus glauca | 5 | 489 (14) | 501 (8) | 515 (19) |
| Quercus myrsinifolia | 3 | 519 (16) | 511 (16) | 514 (16) |
| Quercus serrata | 5 | 490 (3) | 492 (8) | 498 (13) |
| Quercus variabilis | 8 | 522 (17) | 491 (11) | 495 (23) |
| Quercus wutaishanica | 3 | 473 (16) | 487 (10) | 500 (12) |
| Quercus edithiae | 1 | 499 | 490 | 497 |
| Quercus mongolica | 38 | 474 (25) | 493 (13) | 500 (14) |
| Quercus multinervis | 1 | 495 | 485 | 515 |
| Quercus stewardiana | 5 | 496 (9) | 500 (11) | 503 (19) |
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Dong, C.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Liu, Z.; Zhao, H.; Li, W.; Chao, X.; Wang, X. Spatial Patterns of Stem Tissue Carbon Content in Fagaceae Species from Typical Forests in China. Forests 2025, 16, 1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091478
AMA Style
Dong C, Liu Y, Zhang L, Liu Z, Zhao H, Li W, Chao X, Wang X. Spatial Patterns of Stem Tissue Carbon Content in Fagaceae Species from Typical Forests in China. Forests. 2025; 16(9):1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091478
Chicago/Turabian StyleDong, Chengke, Yulong Liu, Luna Zhang, Zhecheng Liu, Huabin Zhao, Wenjing Li, Xiaoyi Chao, and Xingchang Wang. 2025. "Spatial Patterns of Stem Tissue Carbon Content in Fagaceae Species from Typical Forests in China" Forests 16, no. 9: 1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091478
APA StyleDong, C., Liu, Y., Zhang, L., Liu, Z., Zhao, H., Li, W., Chao, X., & Wang, X. (2025). Spatial Patterns of Stem Tissue Carbon Content in Fagaceae Species from Typical Forests in China. Forests, 16(9), 1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091478
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