Next Article in Journal
Quantifying Landscape Effects on Urban Park Thermal Environments Using ENVI-Met and 3D Grid Profile Analysis
Previous Article in Journal
Resprouting Ability and Carbon Allocation of Robinia pseudoacacia L. Trees After Cutting at Different Stem Heights
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Forests
Volume 16
Issue 7
10.3390/f16071083
forests-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Sustainable Implementation Strategies for Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration: Insights from Chinese Forests

by
Hengsong Zhao
1,*,
Wanlin Wei
2,* and
Mei He
3
1
School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
2
College of Landscape Architecture, Jiyang College of Zhejiang University, Shaoxing 311800, China
3
College of Forestry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(7), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071083
Submission received: 13 May 2025 / Revised: 6 June 2025 / Accepted: 20 June 2025 / Published: 30 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil and Water Conservation and Forest Ecosystem Restoration)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Market-oriented ecological restoration is vital for advancing ecological civilization and promoting harmonious human–nature relationships. However, the precise implementation pathway remains unclear. Few studies specifically address challenges that arise during ecological restoration implementation. Ensuring the smooth and effective implementation and landing of ecological restoration projects harmonizes ecological and economic objectives at the regional scale and fosters sustainable development in the region. Based on the policies of market-oriented ecological restoration collected from various Chinese provinces, and through multi-level institutional analysis, the policy measures are categorized into three phases: early, middle, and late. For each phase, we summarize the challenges encountered in implementing market-oriented ecological restoration projects. Finally, by the method of constructing theoretical models, we propose sustainable countermeasures based on multiple theoretical models. The results show (1) China’s ecological restoration sector is experiencing rapid growth, and market-oriented policies in China, multiple Chinese provinces, and municipalities have enacted successive market-oriented ecological restoration policies, and the outlook for ecological restoration marketization in China remains highly promising. (2) The implementation process of current market-oriented ecological restoration projects confronts and encounters several challenges. These include the absence of project screening and evaluation mechanisms, limited investment and financing channels, ill-defined approval processes, ambiguous delineation of departmental responsibilities, insufficient industry incentives, and the absence of effective operational and management mechanisms. (3) To address the identified challenges, taking forest ecological restoration as an example, theoretical models should be developed encompassing six critical dimensions: the aspects of the mechanism, mode, approval process, management system, industrial chain, and platform. This aims to provide sustainable pathways for the effective implementation of market-oriented forest ecological restoration projects.

1. Introduction

Since the reform and opening up of China, it has depended on unsustainable and high-intensity exploitation of land resources to drive rapid economic growth. However, this approach has also led to widespread forest degradation and other ecological issues [1]. How to reshape the ecological and natural land to achieve sustainable development has become a major research focus [2]. The international Society for Ecological Restoration(SER)defines ecological restoration as the process of “assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed” [3]. It is regarded as the key means to solve this problem. Therefore, China attaches great importance to ecological restoration work at the policy level. The report of the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China stated that “Chinese modernization involves the harmonious coexistence of humans and nature.” Ecological restoration of territorial space adopts the “living community of mountains, water, forests, fields, lakes, and grasses” concept to restructure and rehabilitate degraded ecological spaces [4]. It is thus a vital means to realize harmony between humans and nature. Since 2019, to advance high-quality ecological restoration, the state has issued supportive policies, including the “Encouragement and Support of Social Capital to Participate in Ecological Protection and Restoration” by the General Office of the State Council. Currently, research in this field predominantly addresses macro-policy and theoretical frameworks, with limited focus on practical implementation [5]. Furthermore, provinces and cities such as Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Beijing have implemented market-oriented ecological restoration projects [6].
For a considerable period, ecological restoration projects in China have primarily relied on government funding. Although this approach is both direct and efficient and can expedite project implementation, it has encountered numerous challenges [7], including significant funding gaps [8], lengthy investment cycles [9], and ineffective market cooperation and competition mechanisms [10]. Consequently, most of China’s ecological restoration has adopted public or semi-public welfare models, relying primarily on local government funding. Historically, this development paradigm, heavily dependent on government financing, exacerbated local fiscal pressures. This model diverged from the sustainable development [11]. According to the International Principles and Standards for Ecological Restoration Practice, the market can convert ecological restoration outcomes into ecological products that possess social, economic, and ecological value. Fully leveraging market mechanisms can facilitate the transformation of ecological resources and help mitigate emerging conflicts and divergences. Within a market economy framework, China’s ecological restoration projects should adopt market-oriented approaches [12,13]. Ecological restoration can thus be regarded as an investment endeavor requiring financing from the government, society, enterprises, and other stakeholders. Moreover, market-oriented ecological restoration can generate tradable ecological products with significant social and economic value, such as forest ecological restoration, which can generate carbon sinks, release oxygen, provide timber resources, and enhance soil and water conservation capacity [14,15], thereby achieving a win-win outcome in both ecological and economic terms [16].
However, there is currently a lack of policies and scholarly research that specifically addresses the challenges encountered throughout the entire implementation process of market-oriented ecological restoration projects; this has resulted in a significant gap between theoretical research and practical application. These projects frequently face obstacles during implementation, including financing, project approval, and construction coordination, which may hinder progress or even result in project failure. Such failures not only result in the waste of time and financial resources but also diminish the willingness of private and social capital to participate. The success of a project fundamentally depends on its effective implementation and delivery [17]. Therefore, identifying effective implementation pathways for market-oriented ecological restoration projects has become an urgent issue requiring resolution. This study adopts market-oriented ecological restoration as the entry point, categorizes the implementation process into early, middle, and late stages, and systematically identifies the key challenges at each phase. Drawing on current policy frameworks and practical contexts, this study proposes a theoretical analysis model as a basis for addressing implementation challenges. Using forest ecological restoration as a representative case, this study outlines targeted countermeasures and strategic recommendations to ensure sustainable implementation, thereby supporting the achievement of United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15.

2. Materials and Methods

The research method of this article is divided into three parts: The first part is material collection. We collect policies documents related to the keyword “market-oriented ecological restoration” from the official government websites of the state, various provinces, and cities through 2024 (Table 1). Secondly, we conduct the multi-level institutional analysis [18], including the management institutions, implementation frameworks, regulatory systems and laws. By summarizing these and conducting comparative studies on them, it is possible to fully understand the problems currently existing in the implementation process of the market-oriented ecological restoration project. After clarifying the problem again, we finally establish a theoretical model as the method and construct the targeted solution in the form of the flowchart. This method is conducive to discovering the essence of social problems and deficiencies in the management system [19].

3. Results

3.1. Current Status of Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration

China’s ecological protection and restoration industry presents substantial growth potential. Since 2015, China’s investment in environmental protection and governance as a percentage of GDP has steadily risen. However, this remains below the over 2.5 percent GDP benchmark typical of Western economies. According to statistics, China’s ecological restoration market has expanded annually, growing from approximately CNY 165.6 billion in 2011 to CNY 434 billion in 2022 [20,21]. As illustrated in Figure 1, the Chinese ecological restoration industry has maintained an annual growth rate exceeding 10% in recent years. The total investment has reached more than twice that of 2011. Given the escalation of the environmental challenges from climate change, air pollution, and sustainable land management, the robust expansion rate is expected to accelerate further. Under current trends, the market size could surpass CNY 700 billion by 2024 [22]. The year-on-year expansion thereby provides a solid basis for advancing market-oriented ecological restoration initiatives.
Meanwhile, the central and local governments have enacted comprehensive policies to support ecological protection and restoration. In April 2019, the General Office of the Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the “Guiding Opinions on Coordinating and Promoting the Reform of the Property Rights System of Natural Resource Assets,” which proposes trading usage rights of restored-site natural resources to incentivize social investors to participate in environmental protection and restoration [23]. In December 2019, the Ministry of Natural Resources released the “Opinions on the Exploration of Market-oriented Approaches to Facilitate Ecological Restoration of Mines,” targeting mine sites. This document aims to strengthen territorial spatial planning leadership, promote comprehensive policy integration and pathway development, and apply market-oriented mechanisms to overcome key obstacles, ultimately encouraging active social capital participation in environmental protection and restoration. The 2021 Opinions of the General Office of the State Council on Encouraging and Supporting the Participation of Social Capital in Ecological Protection and Restoration stipulate that social capital is encouraged to engage across the investment, design, restoration, management, and maintenance phases of ecological restoration projects and to foster ecological industry development. Participation modes include independent investment, public–private partnerships, and public welfare models. Participants may obtain returns by leveraging usage rights or franchise agreements to develop relevant industries and to operate and maintain restoration sites.
Meanwhile, 22 provincial-level jurisdictions have promptly enacted regional policies aligned with national guidelines. As shown in Figure 2, as of 2024, approximately 65% of China’s provinces, municipalities, autonomous regions, and special administrative zones have established relevant regulations. Owing to potential policy delays, the remaining 35% of provinces are also expected to release policy documents that guide the implementation of market-oriented ecological restoration projects. This trend underscores a growing nationwide commitment to institutionalizing market mechanisms in ecological restoration, and policymakers nationwide are actively promulgating measures to pilot innovative market-oriented ecological protection and restoration practices, thereby providing robust policy frameworks to support project implementation.
In addition, market-oriented implementation of forest ecological restoration has been piloted in provinces such as Guangdong and Zhejiang, including the Hakka Town initiative in Meizhou City [24] and the Triangle Island Lakes remediation in Zhuhai City [25]. These pilot projects have yielded notable ecological and economic gains through government–social capital partnerships. This demonstrates that the marketization of restoration projects represents a key innovation in China’s ecological civilization practice and serves as a critical mechanism to reconcile economic development with ecological protection [26]. Backed by expanding investments and supportive policies, its future prospects continue to strengthen. However, practical implementation faces multiple challenges—stemming from project complexity, multi-agency involvement, high capital requirements, and prolonged payback periods—that create dilemmas for both stakeholders and authorities at various stages, thus impeding broader adoption.

3.2. Dilemmas in the Implementation of Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration Projects

A multi-level analysis of the policy documents presented in Table 1 reveals that the relevant government documents provide detailed procedures and methodologies for market-oriented ecological restoration, offering normative guidance for effective project implementation. However, the successful marketization of ecological restoration hinges on coordinated execution across multiple phases, including project initiation, design, construction, operation, and procurement. The general and abstract nature of many current policy guidelines indicates that projects often encounter substantial challenges during their full-cycle implementation. To address these issues, this study divides the implementation process into three distinct stages, pre-stage, mid-term, and late-stage, and systematically analyzes the specific barriers associated with each. Furthermore, this study applies a stage-based theoretical framework to examine the implementation process in greater depth and to inform more targeted policy recommendations.

3.2.1. Pre-Stage

  • Lack of Pre-Implementation Project Screening Mechanisms and Evaluation Criteria
Ecological restoration is a challenging task at this stage. This is attributed to the rough development in the past, which has resulted in limited resources being invested in it at present. At the same time, the ecological restoration of territorial spatial planning emphasizes the creation of ecological benefits based on the concept of “the community of life of mountains, water, forests, fields, lakes, and grasses”, while the market-oriented mechanism is to guarantee the return on the value of the investment [27]. How to invest limited funds in appropriate projects and how to ensure that market-oriented ecological restoration projects can maximize both ecological and economic value after implementation are key considerations in the pre-implementation phase of market-oriented ecological restoration projects [28]. Currently, there is a deficiency of scientific evaluation standards and clear mechanisms for the selection of market-oriented ecological restoration projects in all provinces and cities, which may lead to poor restoration effects and market returns.
2.
Lack of rich investment and financing ways and channels for the projects
China’s ecological restoration projects predominantly depend on government funding. While this mechanism streamlines implementation and enhances efficiency, it exposes projects to fiscal constraints, burgeoning deficits, and funding shortfalls [29]. Currently, most market-oriented models for ecological restoration continue to employ government payments and various subsidy schemes as their primary revenue models, thereby remaining heavily reliant on public financing [30]. Consequently, restoration activities lack a coherent integration with market mechanisms [31]. This insufficiency undermines funding source liquidity and, by adhering to a singular investment–financing model, impedes social–capital participation in ecological restoration projects. Consequently, the full environmental and economic benefits of market-oriented forest ecological restoration remain unrealized [32].

3.2.2. Mid-Stage

  • Lack of a targeted approval process for market-oriented ecological restoration
The existing approval process for construction projects is a remnant of the traditional large-scale development and construction phase, and China’s current project approval system is still undergoing reform and optimization [33]. As the state pays increasing attention to the ecological environment and social and economic progress, the numerous deficiencies in the past approval process have become a significant impediment to China’s sustainable development. They are incompatible with the demands of current socio-economic development, let alone the requirements for implementing market-oriented ecological restoration projects in the new era of national territory. Meanwhile, China has not yet devised an independent approval process for market-oriented ecological restoration projects. The institutionalization process of such projects is severely restricted, hampering the healthy and orderly implementation of market-oriented ecological restoration work. The implementation process lacks a clear reference basis, resulting in inefficiency and chaotic management issues [34]. This leads to excessive consumption of financial and human resources by the participants in the marketization of ecological restoration, thereby causing them to lose confidence.
2.
Lack of clarity on the powers and responsibilities of the competent authorities for the management of market-oriented projects for ecological restoration
Market-oriented ecological restoration projects involve multiple natural elements and consequently engage numerous administrative departments. Approval procedures and required documentation are often highly complex [35]. Management departments frequently lack a clear understanding of their respective rights and responsibilities within the areas. This ambiguity leads to overlapping mandates, mutual constraints, and occasional evasion of responsibilities among departments. In the absence of a dedicated lead agency responsible for coordinating all stakeholders and resolving issues promptly, the implementation efficiency of market-oriented ecological restoration projects is significantly hindered [36]. Excessive demands on public and private sector resources drive up the cost of social–capital investment, thereby undermining investor confidence in the long-term prospects of these projects.

3.2.3. Late-Stage

  • Not attractive enough to attract industries following ecological restoration
Since China has not yet established an accurate and comprehensive accounting system for the value of ecological products, the added ecological value of ecological restoration has not been fully reflected. This reduces the attractiveness of social capital for industries, resulting in a shortage of profitable industries after ecological restoration. The absence of introduced industries leads to the high difficulty in marketing intangible ecological products after ecological restoration and the underestimation of the value of ecological products [37], which ultimately affects the final implementation of ecological restoration marketization. Currently, except for a few forest restoration projects that can be combined with tourism, the introduction conditions of other types of industries are unfavorable and their attractiveness is insufficient [38]. Moreover, few enterprises have the initiative and willingness to carry out industrial development after ecological restoration, ultimately leading to the lack of an implementation link for market-oriented ecological restoration.
2.
Lack of regulatory mechanisms for the operation and maintenance of projects
The deficiency of regulatory mechanisms for the operation and maintenance of market-oriented ecological restoration projects has led to a disconnect between ecological restoration efforts and subsequent industrial development during implementation. On the one hand, policy guidance rarely specifies how restoration-generated resource rights are allocated between investing entities and original rights-holders, resulting in uncertainty about project profitability. On the other hand, the government has not defined clear obligations for market participants to maintain and protect restoration outcomes as related industries expand. Moreover, unmonitored market players may neglect post-restoration maintenance or exploit restoration sites for intensive use under the pretext of ecological protection, thereby inflicting secondary ecological damage.

4. Responses and Recommendations

4.1. Strengthening the Leadership of Territorial Spatial Planning and Establishing a Mechanism for the Selection of Projects

Territorial Spatial Ecological Restoration Planning refers to comprehensive land-use planning and scientifically stratified classification that integrates local environmental and socio-economic characteristics [39]. Chinese and provincial territorial spatial ecological restoration plans are already in place. Therefore, local governments and relevant agencies should strengthen planning leadership and leverage baseline surveys, priority restoration zones, defined tasks and measures, and projected investment requirements as the overarching framework to guide market-oriented restoration implementation [40]. Simultaneously, to identify locally appropriate, high-value market-oriented restoration projects, a two-tier database system—comprising a project reserve repository and an approved project plan registry—should be established prior to project approval (Figure 3). Projects proposed by local governments or social investors undergo preliminary evaluation by the responsible agency, which assesses policy compliance and planning alignment before inclusion in the project reserve repository [41]. Following comprehensive appraisal and inter-agency coordination, selected projects are incorporated into the annual implementation plan, from which projects are prioritized for execution. This process ensures that reputable enterprises with strong technical and financial capacity are selected to implement high-impact market-oriented ecological restoration projects [42].

4.2. Development of Diversified Investment and Financing Models and Returns for Forest Ecological Restoration Projects

The implementation of market-oriented ecological restoration within territorial space aims to leverage market mechanisms to mobilize capital and direct it into project construction and development, thereby establishing a virtuous cycle of investment and returns that ultimately enhances the enthusiasm and confidence of social capital participants [43]. First, local governments can establish a comprehensive green finance system by issuing ecological restoration-specific bonds, green bonds, and other financial instruments and services to meet the substantial capital demands of such projects [44]. This promotes the integration of financial resources and ecological assets while enabling the design of appropriate incentive and constraint mechanisms to mitigate funding risks. Second, during the development and construction phase, models such as EPC (Engineering–Procurement–Construction), PPP (Public–Private Partnership), and EOD (Ecology-Oriented Development) should be actively promoted [45] to fully leverage the integrative capacity of social capital in terms of financing, construction, and operations, thereby alleviating financial and administrative pressure on local governments. Third, upon completion of ecological restoration, local governments and market entities should jointly develop policy documents and agreements outlining the allocation of responsibilities, risks, and future revenue streams. Mechanisms such as the trading of natural resource property rights—including carbon credits, water rights, and land development quotas—as well as concession sales [46], should be promoted to ensure an equitable distribution of benefits and obligations between the public and private sectors. Ultimately, these measures will contribute to the sustainable development of both the local ecological environment and economic systems (Figure 4).

4.3. Establish a Focused ‘Whole Life Cycle’ Approval Process for Project Implementation

During the introduction of the ecological restoration market, the approval process of ecological restoration projects plays a crucial role [47]. Therefore, the establishment of a reasonable and efficient “whole life cycle” approval process and rules can assist ecological restoration market-oriented projects in terms of laws and regulations, the approval process, and rules. The establishment of a reasonable and efficient “whole life cycle” approval process and rules can offer a reference for a series of issues arising from laws and regulations, institutional norms, and after-sale monitoring of ecological restoration projects [48]. It is a procedure that regulates and guides ecological restoration projects, covering the entire process of project entry, project design, construction, completion and acceptance, operation and management, etc. This includes the screening and evaluation of the project in the pre-project stage, the submission of the ecological restoration plan, the construction review and design documents, and the completion and acceptance documents in the mid-term stage, as well as the signing of the agreement documents in the later operation and management stage, and other detailed contents. It can effectively enhance the transparency and efficiency of project approval, reduce unnecessary delays and costs, and provide a reference basis for the smooth implementation of ecological restoration projects [49,50], ensuring that ecological restoration projects can receive support efficiently and sustainably in the context of marketization and providing clear guidelines for the entire process of social capital participation in all aspects of project implementation (Figure 5).

4.4. Clarifying the Delineation of Responsibilities and Authorities Among Relevant Agencies and Departments for Ecological Restoration

At the initial stage of ecological restoration projects, emphasis should be placed on the concept of resource management [51]. Simultaneously, it should prioritize comprehensive and integrated planning and management. Therefore, the approval and administration of market-oriented ecological restoration projects must clearly define the primary responsible authority and relevant departments. Following the institutional reform of China’s central government in 2018, the responsibility for ecological restoration has been transferred to the Ministry of Natural Resources [52]. Accordingly, local governments should designate the local natural resources department as the lead agency responsible for project implementation. This department should coordinate with other relevant agencies to conduct joint reviews and provide guidance based on the specific domains involved in each project. In line with local regulatory frameworks, the responsibilities of departments engaged in market-oriented ecological restoration must be explicitly defined—for instance, the Development and Reform Commission should oversee project proposal approvals, while the natural resources departments should be in charge of ecological restoration and land-use planning approvals. A robust organizational structure should be established, characterized by government leadership, interdepartmental coordination, upstream and downstream linkage, and collaborative governance. Furthermore, a comprehensive ecological protection and restoration plan should be developed, with clearly defined project objectives and tasks. Procedures for project submission and approval must be standardized, and mechanisms for property rights flow and confirmation should be optimized (Figure 6).

4.5. Attracting Industrial Layout and Exploring the Whole Process of “Advertise–Restore–Develop–Operate” Industrial Chain

The successful implementation of market-oriented forest ecological restoration depends on establishing effective pathways for realizing the value of ecological products [53]. A sustainable, market-driven restoration mechanism can only be established when the market fully recognizes and rewards these values [54,55]. Achieving this requires comprehensive planning that integrates the ecological, cultural, and industrial resources of restored areas while facilitating the rational spatial configuration of related industries [56]. Industries tailored to local conditions—such as forest tourism and photovoltaic power generation—can be developed and operated without undermining the outcomes of the original restoration efforts. This approach establishes a continuous cycle of “promotion–restoration–development–operation,” fostering sustainable industry development and enabling social capital to achieve efficient returns. Consequently, a stable model integrating ecological management with industrial development is established. Eventually, ecological restoration nodes will catalyze broader industrial development across the landscape, further stimulating the enthusiasm and initiative of social capital to participate in market-oriented ecological restoration projects [57] (Figure 7).

4.6. Support the Marketing of Forest Ecological Restoration by Providing a Professional Communication Platform

Effective coordination among diverse stakeholders is vital to the successful implementation of forest ecological restoration projects [58]. A central challenge in market-oriented restoration involves the interaction between government bodies and social capital, which can often be mitigated through well-structured communication mechanisms. Establishing a specialized communication platform tailored to market-oriented ecological restoration projects is recommended to enhance implementation efficiency [59]. Initially, government agencies should invest in training professionals with a solid understanding of market-based ecological restoration principles. Subsequently, the development of relevant policies and regulations should be expedited, accompanied by robust public outreach efforts to ensure that social capital entities fully understand and comply with the legal framework governing forest ecological restoration. Furthermore, standardized guidelines covering planning, design, engineering, governance evaluation, and financial management should be established to provide a scientifically grounded reference framework for social capital participation [60]. Ultimately, the communication platform will function as a key conduit for resolving conflicts and addressing challenges among stakeholders, thereby fostering effective collaboration between government entities and social capital to advance market-oriented forest ecological restoration initiatives (Figure 8).

5. Conclusions and Discussion

5.1. Conclusions

In the background of China’s pursuit of a green, sustainable, and healthy economic model, the concept of market-oriented ways has emerged as a pivotal strategy for realizing ecological restoration. By analyzing China’s market-oriented policies for ecological restoration comprehensively, we segmented the implementation process into three distinct stages: early, middle, and late. Through this framework, we systematically identify and elaborate on the principal challenges encountered during each phase of market-oriented ecological restoration projects. To address these challenges, we propose some theoretical implementation models, and use ecological restoration as the representative cases. The results show that (1) Enhancing early-stage comprehensive planning and establishing a robust project screening mechanism can facilitate the expansion of diversified investments in ecological restoration projects, thereby attracting and sustaining greater participation from social capital. (2) The government should delineate the rights and responsibilities of management departments involved in the marketization of ecological restoration projects and establish a comprehensive life-cycle review and approval process to streamline project implementation and ensure effective governance. (3) Establishing a professional communication platform to facilitate stakeholder cooperation and knowledge exchange can enhance the sustainability of ecological restoration projects. (4) Taking market-oriented forest ecological restoration projects as an example, future efforts should emphasize the transformation of forest ecological value into tangible benefits, including ecotourism, recreational services, and timber resources. The implementation of these models is expected to substantially enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of market-oriented forest ecological restoration initiatives. These models offer practical guidance for decision-makers and practitioners aiming to optimize and implement ecological restoration projects within a market-driven framework.

5.2. Discussion

The market-oriented ecological restoration of forests represents a pivotal strategy for advancing high-quality development, constructing a modern economic system, and promoting green and sustainable growth. Central to this approach is the recognition and realization of the value of forest ecological products, aligning with China’s “Master Plan for National Key Ecosystem Protection and Restoration Major Projects (2021–2035)” [61]. Although this study is the first to propose a theoretical framework and solutions for the full-cycle implementation of market-oriented ecological restoration projects, several critical challenges remain. A key issue lies in clarifying the property rights associated with forest ecological products. Addressing this requires the establishment of a comprehensive and standardized evaluation system for their value. Innovative approaches, such as the Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) accounting framework [62], have been developed to quantify the economic value of ecosystem services and other benefits provided by forests [63]. Implementing such valuation systems enables more precise assessments of forest ecosystem value. In turn, this supports the formulation of rational and actionable policy interventions. By adopting scientifically robust valuation methods, policymakers can better integrate ecological priorities into economic decision-making processes, ensuring that forest ecological restoration is both economically feasible and ecologically sustainable. Future research should aim to refine these valuation techniques and explore novel mechanisms for realizing the ecological value of forest products, thereby advancing the overall effectiveness and scalability of market-oriented ecological restoration initiatives.
Moreover, the qualitative policy data provides a solid foundation for this study, but it is limited by the absence of comprehensive coverage of all relevant Chinese policies and a lack of quantitative methods to validate the identified pathways. In the future, policy recommendations should be grounded in empirical data to provide more precise guidance and to integrate the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to enhance the precision and effectiveness of ecological restoration strategies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.Z. and W.W.; methodology, H.Z.; software, H.Z.; validation, H.Z., M.H. and W.W.; formal analysis, H.Z.; investigation, H.Z. and W.W.; resources, H.Z.; data curation, H.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, H.Z.; writing—review and editing, H.Z., W.W., and M.H.; visualization, H.Z.; supervision, W.W. and M.H.; project administration, W.W.; funding acquisition, W.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Federation of Social Sciences Circles of Zhejiang Province, grant number 2024B065.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Sun, T.; Feng, Z.; Yang, Y.; Lin, Y.; Wu, Y. Research on land resource carrying capacity: Progress and prospects. J. Resour. Ecol. 2018, 9, 331–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Yan, Z.; You, N.; Wang, L.; Lu, W.; Cheng, L. Assessing the impact of road network on urban landscape ecological risk based on corridor cutting degree model in Fuzhou, China. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Holl, K.D.; Aide, T.M. When and where to actively restore ecosystems? For. Ecol. Manag. 2011, 261, 1558–1563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Zheng, Y.; Zhuang, G. Systemic governance of mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands, lakes and grasslands: Theoretical framework and approaches. Chin. J. Urban Environ. Stud. 2021, 9, 2150021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Cao, S.; Shang, D.; Yue, H.; Hui, Y.; Hua, M. A win-win strategy for ecological restoration and biodiversity conservation in Southern China. Environ. Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 044004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Xu, Y.; Wan, C. Market-oriented exploration and planning practice of watershed governance based on the theory of two mountains-Taking the Implementation Plan for Comprehensive Management and Ecological Restoration of Yongding River as an Example. Planner 2021, 37, 55–60. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=r_P-ES8duRrD27RK_8LzpRGQsuXPyVDSBqfjtlPPpHjqj9swBreM2_6p3xS2-clt3W-chWU5RrmzYNTwNo1dY_7Lxx3uX6dogB54OmpLIo_rKg-a5NTJulGMlXGfmposiLlIsoMbqj4qADVNKtIhG7-FY0cOGxTP4c--1smdKueHaf0uSEJGoFhX_7D1JhM2&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 16 August 2023).
  7. Zhou, Y.; Zhou, X.; Yang, C. Issues to be concerned in promoting mine ecological restoration by market-oriented approach. China Land 2020, 39, 42–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Yang, B.; Fu, H.; Guo, S.; Wang, J. Marine ecological protection and green development in China. Sci. Technol. Rev. 2023, 41, 22–29. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=HbazLCXbuSUsXhdLPq3ymRJxyPMbdAbu6ImHe18W7M8DmFGPRcbV8vxX6ENfUP9TI_xxx8h6K3vmL2c4jr04Al33lLSdDCsEe3Kq0QHsOD3Av4RLTKpHNEu4j1WHgdEYp9Fu23OpsSGS1uXq-a1dNeEhrrFA_UuIboKq5j7UM4QQKgzMyhKpx3CIY5Hp--dx&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 6 May 2024).
  9. Yang, Y.; Chen, Z.; Wang, F.; Zhang, S.; Hu, H. Budget cost and effect of mine geological environmental protection and land reclamation. China Land Rescourse Econ. 2022, 35, 75–82. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=CdHX_LbaUYw1G4_Lh0l3e_kymIsz6oz9BbKiBwIt8S6xeUu_aqrjV3JRyWtNkphsAgKFuRycbuQeiS-Wb6z7kHFHdNlsiUzMe3aWQDRm-xefZiuyX3OLdNfEE826yIxNxDmVfUQ3bYAUTNnTTjFIirU5CLGibi2k59cxBqmXmVnAjKQyiyYzoK2dejFWZP53&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 16 August 2023).
  10. Ding, Z.; He, Y.; Liu, S.; Xiao, Z.; Wei, H.; Shun, Y. Assessing the ecological effects of fiscal investments in sloping land conversion program for revegetation: A case study of Shaanxi province, China. Forests 2024, 15, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Jin, L.S.; Chu, Z.L.; Zou, C.G. The role of different types of ecological compensation in ecological protection and restoration of mountains, rivers, forests, fields, lakes and grasses. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2019, 39, 8709–8716. [Google Scholar]
  12. Brancalion, P.; Lamb, D.; Ceccon, E.; Doug, B.; John, H.; Bernardo, S.; David, P. Using markets to leverage investment in forest and landscape restoration in the tropics. For. Policy Econ. 2017, 85, 103–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Borgström, S.; Zachrisson, A.; Eckerberg, K. Funding ecological restoration policy in practice-patterns of short-termism and regional biases. Land Use Policy 2016, 52, 439–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Zhang, M.Y.; Wang, K.L.; Liu, H.Y.; Zhang, C.H.; Wang, J.; Yue, Y.M.; Qi, X.K. How ecological restoration alters ecosystem services: An analysis of vegetation carbon sequestration in the karst area of northwest Guangxi, China. Environ. Earth Sci. 2015, 74, 5307–5317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Matzek, V. Turning delivery of ecosystem services into a deliverable of ecosystem restoration: Measuring restoration’s contribution to society. Restor. Ecol. 2018, 26, 1013–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Kroll, C.; Warchold, A.; Pradhan, P. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Are we successful in turning trade-offs into synergies. Palgrave Commun. 2019, 5, 140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Xu, M.; Ge, Y.; Cao, Z.; Sun, X.; Lin, W.; Xu, F. Analysis of market-oriented practice of ecological restoration of abandoned mines. China Resour. Compr. Util. 2023, 41, 114–117. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=HbazLCXbuSVNROLLzRx2CX-pKm3fCvyPxLd4sZ7aDDBIp080BW873t3BnhpwAN-mywzZMO4cMsG2fy0WebCRYoLDP8Fcb68MN69t6tlBpBjuOEh_4PJAZ7PxsxICKoSaXgz45VWV-RNqgSTva6V_VYD3dHz4sImTolECjA78gjsYFLcKgYHq_Oc0S3tIVC-p&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 1 October 2023).
  18. Young, O.R. Institutional dynamics: Resilience, vulnerability and adaptation in environmental and resource regimes. Glob. Environ. Change 2010, 20, 378–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Layder, D. Social sciences, social reality and the false division between theory and method: Some implications for social research. SN Soc. Sci. 2021, 1, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Yin, R.; Yin, G.; Li, L. Assessing China’s ecological restoration programs: What’s been done and what remains to be done? Environ. Manag. 2010, 45, 442–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. China Ecological Restoration Market Deep Research and Investment Strategy Consulting Report 2023–2029. Available online: https://pdfs.cir.cn/QiTaHangYe/98/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E4%BF%AE%E5%A4%8D%E6%9C%AA%E6%9D%A5%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E8%B6%8B%E5%8A%BF_2233298.pdf (accessed on 16 August 2023).
  22. Xiao, Y. Market-oriented development of ecological protection and restoration. China Land 2021, 40, 1. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=HbazLCXbuSUZPV37OzvovWHeeeeEVP2Ldp5VZvpfw5GxkIGQsJCKxbyvRnfwbGqIlDoUxoJMvuKukJp1OBbkuVCqCr6GN6AUv-GgXbwuzLsM7hCE0-1uaAa1fHE0DQKxRu3V6qW-FEnWpkAIdautQU1SJVyx8f65LZR9aJi3fVkw45-LYj8e5qX5hEztI3dK&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 1 September 2023).
  23. Zhong, A.; Hu, C.; You, L. Evaluation and prediction of ecological restoration effect of Beijing Wangping coal mine based on modified remote sensing ecological index. Land 2023, 12, 2059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Luo, Q.; Qiu, C. Study on the development path of Hakka cultural creative industry in Meizhou--taking Hakka World tourism industrial park as an example. Comp. Study Cult. Innov. 2022, 6, 117–120+134. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=acR2UJ02YhSyEMUfcxty2nH5Vp2xLhUzmrtIeV6iewNmogaZraud67mJ-EUd-wSfIprbjH5ICYgrX__L_lPuMlgz-D_emf3-9xKf1LroJqbi_wS8MGgojnTqb7_ottaFfkW9i2qzD7Ru9F7hQKTfWlggyf17y_vigrbPLvEFILCfh_I9YA9FJPdUqdI639S6YMwPWWxfX4o=&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 15 September 2023).
  25. Liao, J. Public welfare development of eco-tourism in Zhuhai delta island. Ocean. Fish. 2019, 41, 20–23. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=r_P-ES8duRpVSvNqSdtTYID8UcIqhf63wfI7N0CPU3LN6rnRs5KG3NzztAtwcfa1uJtL-WIXxNqgpSVIA7jGvwTnLdOWk7P0R1I463Hu5UjWbQ6STZNV-CzXprYiqtvPkjnfji3lyeoTLOsrERY6E4T_y9fECtTg3MUoXMtkV3GP5Tzl4Dmps3w9quAOzQZo&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 1 September 2023).
  26. Ji, X.; Han, M.; Ulgiati, S. Optimal allocation of direct and embodied arable land associated to urban economy: Understanding the options deriving from economic globalization. Land Use Policy 2020, 91, 104392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Wang, N.; Tan, D. Research on Ecological Restoration Strategies for Abandoned Mines Based on Ecology-Oriented Development. Decis. Anal. 2025, 22, 44–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Egusquiza, A.; Arana-Bollar, M.; Sopelana, A.; Javier, B. Conceptual and operational integration of governance, financing, and business models for urban nature-based solutions. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Li, S.; Li, Y.; Jiang, N.; Wu, X. Development of key ecological conservation and restoration projects in the past century. Ecol. Front. 2024, 45, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Chen, Z.; Yang, Y.; Zhou, L.; Zhang, Y.; Liang, J. Ecological restoration in mining areas in the context of the Belt and Road initiative: Capability and challenges. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2022, 95, 106767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Rohr, J.; Bernhardt, E.; Cadotte, M.; WH, C. The ecology and economics of restoration. Ecol. Soc. 2018, 23. Available online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26799112 (accessed on 1 September 2023). [CrossRef]
  32. Bosshard, E.; Jansen, M.; Löfqvist, S.; CJ, K. Rooting forest landscape restoration in consumer markets—A review of existing marketing-based funding initiatives. Front. For. Glob. Change 2021, 3, 589982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Zhang, Y.; Man, X.; Zhang, Y. From Division to Integration: Evolution and reform of china’s spatial planning system. Buildings 2022, 13, 1555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Guan, F.; LIiu, L.; Liu, J.; Fu, Y.; Wang, L.; Wang, F.; Li, Y.; Yu, X.; Che, N.; Xiao, Y. Systematically promoting the construction of natural ecological protection and governance capacity: Experts comments on Master Plan for Major Projects of National Important Ecosystem Protection and Restoration (2021–2035). J. Nat. Resour. 2021, 36, 290–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Nelson, C.; Bowers, K.; Lyndall, J.; Stanley, J. Professional certification in ecological restoration: Improving the practice and the profession. Restor. Ecol. 2017, 25, 4–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Méndez-Toribio, M.; Martínez-Garza, C.; Ceccon, E. Challenges during the execution, results, and monitoring phases of ecological restoration: Learning from a country-wide assessment. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0249573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Postel, S. Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  38. Yang, B.; Zhang, Y.; Xiong, K.; Huang, H.; Yang, Y. A review of eco-product value realization and eco-industry with enlightenment toward the forest ecosystem services in karst ecological restoration. Forests 2023, 14, 729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Chen, Y.; Xu, F. The optimization of ecological service function and planning control of territorial space planning for ecological protection and restoratio. Sustain. Comput. Inform. Syst. 2022, 35, 100748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. FUB Several key points in territorial ecological restoration. Bull. Chin. Acad. Sci. (Chin. Version) 2021, 36, 64–69.
  41. Wu, B.; Liu, L. Social capital for rural revitalization in China: A critical evaluation on the government’s new countryside programme in Chengdu. Land Use Policy 2020, 91, 104268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Mu, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhao, C.; Li, X.; Liu, Y.; Lv, J. Conservation planning of multiple ecosystem services in the Yangtze river basin by quantifying trade-offs and synergies. Sustainability 2024, 16, 2511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Valente, J.J.; Bennett, R.E.; Gomez, C.; Bayly, N.; Rice, R.; Marra, P.; Ryder, T.; Sillett, T. Land-sparing and land-sharing provide complementary benefits for conserving avian biodiversity in coffee-growing landscapes. Biol. Conserv. 2022, 270, 109568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Montero, F.; Kumar, R.; Lamba, R.; Escobar, R.; Vashishtha, M. Upadhyaya, S. Guzmán, A. Hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric system: Economic feasibility analysis in the Atacama Desert, Chile. Energy 2022, 239, 122058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Xu, X.; Zhao, M.; Li, X.; Song, C. A study on the risk assessment of water conservancy scenic spot PPP projects. Sustainability 2022, 14, 16625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Inostroza, L.; Konig, H.; Pickard, B.; Zhen, L. Putting ecosystem services into practice: Trade-off assessment tools, indicators and decision support systems. Ecosyst. Serv. 2017, 26, 303–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Sheng, J.; Qiu, W.; Han, X. China’s PES-like horizontal eco-compensation program: Combining market-oriented mechanisms and government interventions. Ecosyst. Serv. 2020, 45, 101164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Liu, T.; Yu, L.; Chen, X.; Wu, H.; Lin, H.; Li, C.; Hou, J. Environmental laws and ecological restoration projects enhancing ecosystem services in China: A meta-analysis. J. Environ. Manag. 2023, 327, 116810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Liu, J.; Xiao, W.; Gao, G.; Jiang, Z.; Xiang, T. Discussion on the inclusion of ecological restoration in the approval process of construction projects. Resour. Hum. Settl. 2021, 276, 52–55. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=r_P-ES8duRp9gHb3-6jGv2tH4NbSwAJgf59mmpf2v9Yyyg9cMVwg715bXh5NNCuhEKhxh99fpOk-4olCIVfWlvs2MZcpwIhYZ6nrFFRMWYG9BEhUs6Bjy_gzVGVv9TaMGVw5iIcULyC4J-btG2Ok-DLToYGE2EvZ8cZwP_VfwSlxzheu3ykrv4kUhOeb&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 1 September 2023).
  50. Liu, X.; Li, M.; Wu, Y.; Zhou, Y. Land space ecological restoration planning: Connotation system, preparation logic and implementation path. China Land Sci. 2023, 37, 11–19. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=r_P-ES8duRrwfEM9zQaPkeoOUJQu74umuw4D7HRvorLlX-G-q72icAfKcwQgdpez-SZYuz3gR9vJ0oIEZ4eE5EhYH_zt6HRMZf1vRNapVe7nLMfleANcdO2Lxeruz8Ts0ofo2GcaZhPvekDRX5XVt6rhAlCBTk0pul0XA-imc9EskLCsIraD3ZH_l8Gorv2C&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 1 June 2024).
  51. Gann, G.D.; McDonald, T.; Walder, B.; Aronson, J.; Nelson, C.R.; Jonson, J.; Hallett, J.G.; Eisenberg, C.; Guariguata, M.R.; Liu, J.; et al. International principles and standards for the practice of ecological restoration. Restor. Ecol. 2019, 27, S1–S46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Deng, Y.; Shi, Y. Recent Developments of China's Institutional Reform for Ocean Management: An Appraisal. Coast. Manag. 2023, 51, 91–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Costanza, R.; D’Arge, R.; De, R.; Farber, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; Limburg, K.; Naeem, G.; O'Neill, R.; Paruelo, J.; et al. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 1997, 387, 253–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Hein, L.; Edens, B.; Obst, C.; Remme, R.; Schröter, M.; Sumarga, E. An Introduction to Ecosystem Accounting. In Routledge Handbook of Ecosystem Services; Routledge: London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2021; pp. 213–219. Available online: https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/49560 (accessed on 1 June 2024).
  55. Pirgmaier, E. The value of value theory for ecological economics. Ecol. Econ. 2021, 179, 106790. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Zeng, S.; Chen, F.; Li, X.; Luo, Z.; Hao, S. Rethinking the ecological restoration of mining areas from the Perspective of rural revitalization. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 392, 042035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Xu, Y.; Zhao, W.; Zhang, Z. The practice of nature-based solutions in China: Ecosystem product value realization. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health 2023, 36, 100514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Geczy, C.; Jeffers, J.; Musto, D.; Tucker, A. Contracts with (social) benefits: The implementation of impact investing. J. Financ. Econ. 2021, 142, 697–718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Liu, J.; Su, X.; Liu, Y.; Shui, W. A review of research on progress in the theory and practice of eco-product value realization. Land 2024, 13, 316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Zhao, H.; Wen, L. Research On The Design For Ecological Landscape Restoration Of The Mining Wasteland. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2021, 30, 6327–6333. [Google Scholar]
  61. Han, Y.; Liu, Y.; Liu, X. Research progress on the market-oriented investment in ecological remediation for the realization of ecological product value. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2023, 43, 176–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Joshi, A.P.; Joshi, S.; Purohit, H. Unveiling the green paradigm: Introducing gross environment product (GEP)-The frontier in ecological growth. Ecol. Indic. 2023, 156, 111192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Sun, P.; Chen, M.; Chen, J. The Blue Habitat of Urban & Suburban Areas and Approaches for Its Biodiversity Research: A Scoping Review. J. Environ. Manag. 2025, 373, 123567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Forests 16 01083 g001
Figure 1. Market size of China’s ecological restoration industry (2011–2022).
Figure 1. Market size of China’s ecological restoration industry (2011–2022).
Forests 16 01083 g001
Forests 16 01083 g002
Figure 2. Proportion of provinces and municipalities issuing policies on the marketization of ecological restoration.
Figure 2. Proportion of provinces and municipalities issuing policies on the marketization of ecological restoration.
Forests 16 01083 g002
Forests 16 01083 g003
Figure 3. Flow model of the market-oriented project screening mechanism for ecological restoration.
Figure 3. Flow model of the market-oriented project screening mechanism for ecological restoration.
Forests 16 01083 g003
Forests 16 01083 g004
Figure 4. Financing and revenue return model for market-oriented ecological restoration projects.
Figure 4. Financing and revenue return model for market-oriented ecological restoration projects.
Forests 16 01083 g004
Forests 16 01083 g005
Figure 5. Flowchart of the whole life cycle approval process of market-oriented projects for ecological restoration.
Figure 5. Flowchart of the whole life cycle approval process of market-oriented projects for ecological restoration.
Forests 16 01083 g005
Forests 16 01083 g006
Figure 6. The framework of competencies and responsibilities of the authorities in charge of the project for the market-oriented ecological restoration.
Figure 6. The framework of competencies and responsibilities of the authorities in charge of the project for the market-oriented ecological restoration.
Forests 16 01083 g006
Forests 16 01083 g007
Figure 7. Comprehensive industry chain model of “Promotion–Restoration–Development–Operation” in ecological restoration.
Figure 7. Comprehensive industry chain model of “Promotion–Restoration–Development–Operation” in ecological restoration.
Forests 16 01083 g007
Forests 16 01083 g008
Figure 8. Operational flowchart of the support platform for ecological restoration projects.
Figure 8. Operational flowchart of the support platform for ecological restoration projects.
Forests 16 01083 g008
Table 1. Statistics of relevant provinces and municipalities that have issued market-oriented documents on ecological restoration.
Table 1. Statistics of relevant provinces and municipalities that have issued market-oriented documents on ecological restoration.
Serial Number Name of the Document
1“Promoting and supporting the involvement of social capital in ecological restoration and protection”
2“The state council’s opinions on exploring the use of market-oriented approaches to promote ecological rehabilitation of mines”
3“Opinions on the implementation of encouraging and supporting the participation of social capital in ecological protection and restoration in the province of Guangdong (Draft for Public Comments)”
4“Departments of Fujian implement guiding principles to promote and support the involvement of social capital in ecological restoration and protection”
5“Opinions on the implementation of Gansu province regarding the promotion and assistance of social capital in ecological restoration and protection”
6“Anhui province implements a number of initiatives to promote and encourage social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection”
7“Application of Guizhou province opinions regarding the promotion and supporting of social capital in ecological restoration and protection”
8“In order to encourage social capital investment, an analysis of Shaanxi province’s implementation opinions on innovative financing and investment mechanisms in critical fields”
9“Promoting social investment through the implementation of the opinions of the people’s government of Hainan province on innovative investment and financing mechanisms in essential areas”
10“Implementing the opinions of the general office of the people’s government of Hebei province regarding social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection”
11“Interpretation of the program of implementation to support the participation of social capital in ecological restoration and protection in Henan Province”
12“Promoting and providing assistance to social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection in Heilongjiang Province”
13“The Hubei province department of natural resources on support and encouragement of social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection”
14“Ecological rehabilitation of historical mines in Hunan province: implementation strategies for investigating the use of market-oriented approaches”
15“The Jilin provincial people’s government’s views on allocating social capital to the forestry and grassland industry to promote the growth of the green economy”
16“Encouraging and supporting social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection in Jiangxi province”
17“Encouraging and supporting social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection in Qinghai province”
18“Opinion draft regarding Shandong province’s promotion and support of social capital’s involvement in ecological restoration and protection”
19“Shanxi province implementation strategies to promote and facilitate social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection”
20“Opinions of the provincial people’s government of Sichuan on the implementation of innovative financing and investment mechanisms in essential areas to promote social investment”
21“Tianjin municipality’s implementation opinions regarding the promotion and support of social capital in ecological restoration and protection”
22“Opinions on the implementation of encouragement and support for social capital participation in ecological restoration and protection in the Xinjiang Region”
23“Yunnan provincial people’s government on enhancing policies to guide and encourage social capital in support of a new round of grasslands and return to forests project construction”
24“Social capital participation in the implementation program for ecological restoration and protection is encouraged and supported by the municipality of Chongqing (draft for comments)”
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhao, H.; Wei, W.; He, M. Sustainable Implementation Strategies for Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration: Insights from Chinese Forests. Forests 2025, 16, 1083. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071083

AMA Style

Zhao H, Wei W, He M. Sustainable Implementation Strategies for Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration: Insights from Chinese Forests. Forests. 2025; 16(7):1083. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071083

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Hengsong, Wanlin Wei, and Mei He. 2025. "Sustainable Implementation Strategies for Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration: Insights from Chinese Forests" Forests 16, no. 7: 1083. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071083

APA Style

Zhao, H., Wei, W., & He, M. (2025). Sustainable Implementation Strategies for Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration: Insights from Chinese Forests. Forests, 16(7), 1083. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071083

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop