Next Article in Journal
Evaluation of the Effects of Different Cultivars of Falcataria falcata on Soil Quality
Previous Article in Journal
Where is the Eastern Larch Beetle? An Exploration of Different Detection Methods in Northern Wisconsin
Previous Article in Special Issue
Longitudinal Anatomical Variation of Wood in Stem and Branch of Six Forest Species from the Amazon Region and Its Relationship with Wood Specific Gravity
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Forests
Volume 16
Issue 3
10.3390/f16030406
forests-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Explorations into Accessible Wood Identification in Paraguay: Wood Anatomy of Plinia rivularis and Plinia peruviana

by
Andrew G. Cervantes
* and
Seri C. Robinson
Department of Wood Science & Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(3), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030406
Submission received: 30 December 2024 / Revised: 3 February 2025 / Accepted: 7 February 2025 / Published: 24 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications—2nd Edition)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

South American wood and wood-based products play major roles in the global forest sector. Most research related to Paraguayan wood is focused on forest restoration, urban arborization, silviculture, and botanical taxonomy. Often overlooked but of major importance is the cellular structure of the trees that comprise remaining forests in Paraguay. Wood greatly contributes to forest value, yet wood anatomy studies remain novel in the country. To further document Paraguayan wood anatomy, two downed species of multipurpose Myrtaceae trees were sampled from a subtropical semi-deciduous forest in Areguá, Central Paraguay. In this article, heartwood xylem anatomy was observed and documented using low-cost methodology to support the regional realities of the emerging field in rural communities, especially local Paraguayan peoples. This included specific gravity, density, and basic light microscopic features. Sample material was processed near the pith at breast height to display cellular features in the transverse, radial, and tangential planes. Four features were measured with light microscopy and ImageJ: tangential vessel element diameter, vessel element length, ray seriation, and ray height. Results showed structural similarity between species, with diffuse porosity, solitary pores, simple perforation plates, alternate intervessel pits, and apotracheal diffuse parenchyma in aggregates. These results represent the first sampling of Myrtaceae from Paraguay in a methodology that can be easily replicated by the native population, thereby enabling further wood anatomy studies in the region.

1. Introduction

Tropical forests play a major role in the global forest sector, as they produce a wide array of timber and many non-timber forest products. The ecoregions of Paraguay are some of the most biologically diverse in South America. With over 700 different native tree species in the country, dendrological diversity has always been an asset [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Although diverse, the over-selection of select tree species in Paraguay has resulted in few native wood species with commercial value in the domestic and international market [1,2,3,4,5]. Although advances in the silviculture industry with Eucalyptus spp. exist, there are many challenges and threats to multiple ecoregions throughout the country. Major threats include histories of deforestation to cultivate cash crops for international sale, unfair land distribution, unsustainable agricultural practices, urban development, foreign investment in natural resource exploitation, governmental corruption, and inadequately regulated laws against illegal harvest and trade of forest woods for fuel wood [7,8,9,10]. Put bluntly, these anthropogenic interventions could lead to species-specific data loss.
Most research related to Paraguayan wood anatomy is focused on historical Jesuit-Guarani wood-based sculptures and art from around the country that illustrate regional fauna, cultural, and mythological characters [11,12,13]. With a similar focus, Benitez et al. [12] examined the harvest, manufacture, and trade of wood-based art from three communities in Paraguay [12]. From the Paraguayan Chaco, Scholz et al. [14] published the only comparative wood anatomy study from the entire country with Prosopis kuntzei (Legumosae) [14]. While a great advancement, all authors had access to the resources of high-end universities in Europe. This presents a disparity within the country and within the field of advancing wood science. Numerous citizens do not attend university due to governmental issues, a lack of institutions, and high demands with the cost of living [7]. Nonetheless, in all wood anatomy cases and in the global forest industry, correct identification is crucial. This is because different trees are in different states of conservation, and some that are listed as threatened or endangered are still traded illegally [8,15]. Hence, wood identification has conservation and legal implications for CITES regulations. In addition, wood is a critical income stream for many of the region but requires some identification ability to ensure the best market value.
To date, the wood anatomy of multiple tree species has not been documented in Paraguay. This leaves many rural landowners unable to access or discern differences (of wood anatomy) between phenotypically similar trees in the region, which impacts management practices and can contribute to problematic illegal logging. The small bit of information available on wood identification of Paraguayan wood requires complex tools well outside the scope of landowners—including consistent access to a light microscope. The primary aim of this study was to examine and document the microstructure of two hardwood Myrtaceae trees, namely Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts and Plinia rivularis (Camb.) Rotman (Figure 1 and Figure 2), using economical methods accessible to rural Paraguayan people so that additional wood anatomy studies exist, and land management can advance. Additional objectives were to support forest-based sciences in Paraguay so future scientists may have reference material as opportunities and accessibility to education and technology develop and to augment the value of these multipurpose trees.
The intent of this study was to help characterize two of the most abundant tree species of this specific region: P. peruviana and P. rivularis. This should help local and native industries, businesses, and landowners take further advantage of the abundance of natural renewable resources, thereby hopefully raising the standard of living. Regionally, we hope these results can serve as a reference for further investigations in the field of Paraguayan wood anatomy. Globally, this study adds to the monitoring and understanding of forests, biodiversity, and the potential of wood from Paraguay.
Two species of Plinia were chosen due to their abundance in the area and frequent local use in multiple sectors but whose xylem anatomy information is absent from several key online wood databases [16,17,18]. Sampling of Plinia spp. from the Brazilian portion of the Atlantic Forest ecosystem was carried out by Marchiori et al., who documented the anatomy of P. trunctifolia [19] and Denardi et al. [20], who presented the wood anatomy of P. rivularis [21]. Santos presented the wood anatomy of 34 Myrtaceae from Rio Grande do Sul, including P. peruviana and P. rivularis [21,22]. Santos G.U.A.C. et al. documented the wood anatomy of the genera Myrciaria, Neomitranthes, Plinia, and Siphoneugena [23]. Finally, Stange et al. examined the wood and charcoal anatomy of different Myrtaceae samples [24]. Nonetheless, it must be stated that wood identification based on information from other countries could be misleading [25,26,27].
Plinia peruviana and Plinia rivularis are found in the large Myrtaceae family of mainly tropical–subtropical trees and shrubs distributed worldwide. Numerous studies have used different approaches to define and redefine the taxonomy and nomenclature of Myrtaceae, including molecular and genetic studies [28,29,30,31,32,33], general botany techniques with flowers and fruits [34,35,36,37,38], and wood anatomy [20,21,22,23,24,25,36,39,40]. The Myrtaceae family consists of about 5650 species pertaining to 127 genera and 17 tribes [34,35,41,42,43]. The family is economically significant in the production of fruits like guayaba, spices, essential oils, timber, gums, and medicines and is important for ecological services [44,45,46,47]. The Plinia group is monophyletic and comprises four genera: Myrciaria, Neomitranthes, Plinia, and Siphoneugena [24]. The genus Plinia L. is distributed from Brazil to Peru and from the West Indies to Cuba [38]. Both P. peruviana and P. rivularis are recognized for their medicinal and edible properties and are consumed directly or used in marmalades and liquors [25,45,46,47,48,49]. Both evergreen understory trees are registered in Peru, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, and northern Uruguay [1,2,3] and are represented in online database checklists [50,51,52]. The average height of P. peruviana ranges from 5 to 15 m, and the average trunk diameter from 5 to 20 cm; similarly, the average height of P. rivularis ranges from 10 to 20 m and the average trunk diameter from 10 to 40 cm [1,2].
This work contributes to global health with a wood anatomy case study from Paraguay. This study was conducted by a Peace Corps Masters International (PCMI) student with Oregon State University (OSU). Therefore, financial resources and access to sophisticated analytical tools were limited, lending the additional objective to conduct and document wood identification with accessible, simple tools to prove that cell patterns can be determined by anybody willing to look closely. Wood identification helps illustrate structure–function relationships. Furthermore, accessible, economical, and feasible regional wood identification utilizing basic scientific instruments from developing countries is of major importance for greater place-based awareness and improved cultural resilience. Ongoing regional registries of wood characteristics from different parts of the continent are important to better understanding the range of cellular features and properties a species may have. Local advances in wood science can offer new perspectives of native species, which may contribute to the ongoing regional evaluation of species value in emerging nations like Paraguay. Studies augment the interest and diversity of wood-based and non-timber forest products on the international market and stimulate other fields supported by wood science, like dendrochronology, law in the timber trade, historical architecture restoration, art, cultural resources, and more [12,52,53,54,55,56,57,58].

2. Materials and Methods

Collaboration between OSU, the PCMI Program, and Peace Corps Paraguay’s Environmental Conservation sector allowed for this study to exist. Project design was established with a Wood Science and Engineering graduate advisor and an OSU College of Forestry Graduate Committee. The researcher lived and worked in host communities that requested PCPY for a Peace Corps Volunteer (PCV). For 39 months, Paraguayan flora was observed, studied, and cultivated repeatedly with local field guides, students, teachers, professionals, and organizations. Over time, a literature review of databases and references for Paraguayan wood anatomy and wood identification was developed and assessed. No Paraguay-specific studies were found on Plinia wood anatomy, albeit five studies were found from Brazil. This study was designed to help introduce and develop the field of wood science and wood identification for contemporary Paraguayan students, wood workers, scientists, and average citizens without university access, a marginal budget, and resources like access to microscopes and scientific equipment in order to simulate the reality for locals and offer documentation for future studies. Further limitations occurred with the COVID-19 pandemic, which immediately halted investigation.
The sampling site was determined by circumstance. The researcher was living on the edge of a relatively large urban forest named Jacare Piru in the town of Areguá, Central Paraguay. The fragmented forest is semi-deciduous, fire-prone, and subject to forest extraction from the surrounding community. Forest characteristics include an elevation of 132 m, average annual temperature of 13–33 °C, and average precipitation of 1400–1600 mm/year [59]. Adding additional challenges, landowner permission was granted to extract samples only if trees were already dead. Thus, two downed Plinia samples were found and identified in the field with field guides from López et al. and Pérez de Molas [2,3]. The P. peruviana sample originated at 25°19′33″ S 57°22′34″ W, and the P. rivularis sample was sourced from 25°19′44″ S 57°22′46″ W. GPS positions were recorded with the Garmen Etrex 3. Downed samples were measured with Spencer’s Loggers Tape in meters, and the Suunto clinometer was utilized to calculate average tree height with the following formula:
H = (C × D) + i
where H represents the total tree height, C is the percentage angle from clinometer to the uppermost tree branch, D is distance from clinometer to tree base, and i is height from ground level to the clinometer. After measuring the circumference of trunks 1.3 m from the base of the trunk, the diameter at breast height (DBH) was calculated using the following formula:
D = C / π
where D is DBH, C is circumference, and π is 3.14. Samples were selected 1.3 m from the base of the trunk using a hand saw and machete. Due to limitations imposed by the reserve on intrusive sampling, only one sample per species was collected at dbh level. One standardized block that measured 5 × 5 × 5 cm and displayed heartwood anatomy in the tangential, transverse, and radial planes [60,61,62,63,64] was processed for each species using a 30 cm circular saw, 15 cm angle grinder with sanding and wood cutting attachments, wood clamps, and sandpaper of the following grits: 80, 180, 220, and 320.
Wood is hygroscopic, meaning that it exchanges moisture with its surrounding environment depending upon relative humidity, temperature, and the moisture content of the material. Two physical properties, i.e., specific gravity and density at the equilibrium moisture content of 0%, were measured using the flotation method with an oven, balance, water, a graduated cylinder, and a chart for determining specific gravity and density [61,63,64]. The density was measured in g/cm3. Density is expressed as mass per unit volume, and the known density of water is 1 g/cm3. Here, the density of wood relative to the density of water determined the specific gravity of the two samples. To avoid the weight of bound water in wood, samples were dried in the oven for 24 h at 101 °C to obtain an assumed equilibrium moisture content of 0%. The sample was coated with paraffin to prevent water entry into the sample. Wood samples were then immersed in a graduated cylinder with water, and the immersed length of the sample was recorded (LI). The ratio of the immersed wood to the total length of the sample (L) was calculated as follows:
R a t i o = L I / L
With this ratio, the chart for determining specific gravity/density was utilized considering the assumed oven-dried moisture content.
Feature descriptions came from both macroscopic and microscopic observations and qualitative and quantitative data. Descriptions of anatomical elements followed the diction established by the IAWA Committee’s Hardwood Microscopic Features Checklist [65,66,67]. Sample blocks were examined in all three planes first with a Belomo 10× triplet hand lens. Blocks were then examined with two stereo microscopes, an Olympus SZX7 and a Boeco BM-800, depending upon availability. With all three instruments, the qualitative features of the heartwood and sapwood color, odor, grain orientation, longitudinal parenchyma, and growth ring patterns were determined [65,66,67].
To visualize more detailed features, sliding microtomes are generally utilized to section samples to exact sizes for microscopy analysis. However, Hoadley (1990) cited that reliable results can also be obtained utilizing razorblades, scalpels, and precision craft knives to extract thin slivers of moistened wood [61]. Wood samples were extracted from all three planes and mounted on glass slides with pipettes, water, forceps, and coverslips, per standard procedures [61]. Slides were examined in all three planes using the Am Scope B490 compound light microscope utilizing 10× and 40× objectives. Photographs of microscope images were conducted by placing the camera to the ocular of the microscope.
Microscopic qualitative data included annotations of from each sample: vessel pitting orientation, fiber pitting patterns, presence of septate fibers, axial parenchyma patterns, ray cell width, and the presence of extractives: tyloses, crystals, oils, gums, etc. With limited imbedded measurement options, photographs of a transparent ruler with millimeter measurements were taken using each objective for photographic reference. Photos were uploaded to a Lenovo computer. With ImageJ Software (ImageJ.net version 1.54m), the scale of pixels from mm to µm was established [68]. As recorded with light microscopy, quantitative data included 25 measurements per sample of four cellular features, i.e., vessel element diameter, vessel element length, ray seriation, and ray height, which were recorded and averaged in µm units.

3. Results

3.1. Plinia peruviana

One P. peruviana sample tree was collected from the field. The sample was dead, as instructed by landowner, and comprised three smooth trunks 2 m in length; the largest branch was selected. The sample tree was not cut down but died of natural causes; it is unknown how long the sample was dead, and it was undoubtably subject to biodegradation.
Macroscopic observations obtained with the 10× hand lens and stereo microscopes demonstrated that the wood was straight-grained, compact, and dense. The heartwood color was dark brown, the sapwood was tan, and the bark was dark brown and thin. The growth ring pattern was diffusely porous, with occasional vessel element clusters. As for the microstructure observed at 100× and 400×, ray cells were not stratified but composed of procumbent cells with two to four marginal rows of square cells, as seen in the radial plane. Observed in the tangential plane, rays varied between multiseriate and uniseriate. The cross-section of the sample showed the dominance of diffuse porosity across indistinct growth rings and diffuse-in-aggregate apotracheal parenchyma. Physical property tests of density and specific gravity showed that the sample had a density of 0.91 and a specific gravity of 0.8. Microscopic characteristics can be observed in Figure 3, and qualitative measurements of the sample are presented in Table 1.

3.2. Plinia rivularis

The P. rivularis sample tree was found recently felled (exact time between felling and collection is unknown) in the field and comprised a single trunk with dbh of 6.3 cm. Macroscopically, the P. rivularis sample had smooth, dark-gray bark; the heartwood color was yellow-pink when fresh cut, then darkened to light gray with oxidation and light exposure; and the sapwood was light gray, almost indistinct from the heartwood based on color alone. The wood was straight-grained, heavy, and dense. Microscopically, from the cross-section, the wood was comprised of indistinct growth ring boundaries yet occasionally formed by rows of thick-walled fibers. The radial plane displayed rays that were composed of procumbent body cells and upright cells. The tangential plane displayed rays that were mostly multiseriate. Also observed in this plane were simple perforation plates with a single opening between vessel elements and parenchyma cells with crystals in the chambers. Microscopic characteristics of P. rivularis are observed in Figure 4, and qualitative measurements can be found in Table 2.

4. Discussion

There is still much to learn and investigate about the environmental effects on wood anatomy across species and their consequent usability. Physical properties and age are also important for understanding a sample’s cell growth and xylem structure as adaptations to the ecosystem in which it resides. The author Chattaway stated that when observing two wood species, the important fact is usually not that both have small vessels of equal diameter but that cells have the potential to be much different and that sizes fall within a certain range [69,70].
A broader understanding of cellular characteristics found in transition zones of the Humid Chaco–Atlantic Forest ecosystems may arise by considering both the samples studied here and the five publications from Brazil. For both samples, vessel element lengths measured in the tangential plane were shorter than samples reported in Brazil. This could be due to the presence of vessel element tails, climate, age, or sample processing. Zimmerman et al. detailed differences in vessel members related to position in the tree (branches, stem, and roots), and all future studies must aim for reduced variability when comparing samples [71,72].
The diameter of vessel elements measured in the tangential plane were wider for Paraguayan Plinia samples than for the samples in the Brazilian publications. It is understood that wider-diameter vessels correlate to larger plant sizes and an increased vulnerability to embolisms; hence, climate could limit maximum plant height [73]. It remains unclear as to which samples were sourced from larger trees, as this was not recorded in any publication.
Ray size varies among species, within a single species, with age, and sample location in the stem, and it can be useful for wood identification [74]. Ray cell heights from the Brazilian publications showed smaller ray cell heights than the Paraguayan Plinia samples measured here. Here and in other publications, ray seriation was multiseriate-dominant, with uniseriate rays also present. Observational differences could be due to sectioning techniques, insufficient sampling, or cellular adaptations between microclimates.
It should be noted that in all cases, an herbarium or the Brazilian state was cited as the source of sample. Only Stange et al. offered source coordinates [25]. Missing from most publications was information on sample origin, forest characteristics, elevation, average annual temperature, and annual precipitation [59]. Understanding that tropical woods can vary more in specific gravity than temperate woods, other valuable information like DBH, density, and specific gravity can help fully understand the structure–function relationship of the species and how it relates to fellow species in other countries [61]. Here, specific gravity was documented for both Plinia species studied, yet more samples and tests are needed to better understand the range of specific gravity values that P. peruviana and P. rivularis can have from across their natural distribution.
This preliminary study was completed by a PCMI international community service volunteer in Paraguay, living and working with small communities that requested the service of a PCV. Largely conducted by an independent researcher, the study’s major limitations included time, access to transportation, laboratories, funding, and high-quality equipment like scanning electron microscopes. Such tools were sparce or non-existent within the country during the time of study. With stated limitations, future low-income, independent researchers should consider the errors encountered during this study. The field sampling technique should include an increased sample size with less variation. Here, landowner instructions were to sample dead trees only, lending the opportunity to study what was available. Less invasive sampling of living trees within controlled regions can reduce the variability of wood exposed to biodegradation and offer insights into regional patterns. Furthermore, ideal situations for microscopy image analysis include imbedded measurements and mounted cameras. Here, variation in image analysis stemmed from sectioning techniques, as razorblades and scalpels were used to section moistened wood blocks, resulting in thickness differences of the samples mounted onto microscope slides for image analysis. Even so, with more precise means of sectioning and sampling, greater accuracy of measurements and sampling of important cellular features can be measured with basic compound light microscopy to include statistical testing and analysis. Further studies of a single taxon over a range of micro- and macroclimatic conditions within a restricted total area could offer insights to better understand the role of anthropogenic or forest factors on xylem adaptations expressed across climatic episodes in time [74,75,76,77].
Documented local uses of P. peruviana are for firewood, carbon, and tool handles [25], while local uses for P. rivularis wood include fabrication of handles, posts, parquet flooring, firewood, and carbon [1,2]. With updated information on the economic value of forest products, wood anatomy investigation could provide further insights into why select species are valued and how best to culture, process, and conserve them for increases in regional forest value [78]. Regional implications of this study include a broader understanding of Plinia microstructure from Paraguay and can increase regional forest value, with a greater diversity of forest products leading to additional conservation and cultivation, whereas global implications of this study support the development of economically accessible and reliable wood identification techniques.

5. Conclusions

Internationally, challenges associated with wood science and wood identification arise with accessibility to equipment, protocols, and language across cultures. Here, two multipurpose Plinia trees were sampled from Central, Paraguay, utilizing accessible materials to encourage further investigation in situations without financial support. While no broad species-specific conclusions can be made due to the limitations present, with tools and access to electricity and an international library system, the results displayed similarity in the cell arrangement and patterns of Plinia rivularis and Plinia peruviana with indistinct growth ring patterns, vessel clusters with apotracheal axial parenchyma, multiseriate and uniseriate ray cells, and thick-walled fibers. Crystals found in parenchyma cells of P. rivularis were not found in P. peruviana. Furthermore, the specific gravity and density of both species were determined to be dense, above 0.8 for specific gravity and above 0.91 g/cm3 for density, illustrating financially accessible means to understand important physical properties of regional wood identification. Follow-up testing should include greater sample sizes with less variation to derive further results.
The results published here support local woodworkers in understanding the “workability” differences of these two species, education systems in terms of how to economically distinguish phenotypically comparable trees, and biodiversity and dendrological awareness in terms of broadening the accessible information about Paraguayan tree species, which will hopefully also be of use to scientific centers and regional xylariums. Future wood anatomy studies utilizing accessible materials and that focus on globally under-documented species, forests, and countries can lead to international advances in the changing relationships between humans, forests, and wood worldwide. More locally, this type of wood anatomy knowledge and the ability to tell similar tree species apart should aid in local and international wood exports by making sure the correct trees are harvested and/or protected in these environments.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.G.C. and S.C.R.; methodology, A.G.C. and S.C.R.; investigation, A.G.C.; resources, A.G.C. and S.C.R.; writing—original draft preparation, A.G.C. writing—review and editing, A.G.C. and S.C.R.; visualization, A.G.C.; supervision, S.C.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available in the original source thesis: https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/1831cs28c (accessed on 29 December 2024).

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgements and gratitude are greatly extended to Seri C. Robinson, the Applied Mycology Laboratory at Oregon State University; the Peace Corps Paraguay and the Masters International Program; the Mycology Laboratory of the National University of Asunción; the National History Museum of Paraguay; and the Benjamin Franklin Science Corner of the Scientific Society of Paraguay. Additional acknowledgements are extended to the ecosystems and people who supported the potential of this study throughout.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. ABC Color. Arboles del Paraguay: Donde Hay un Árbol Hay Vida; Editorial Azeta: Asunción, Paraguay, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  2. López, J.A.; Little, E.; Rits, G.; Rombols, J.; Hahn, W.; Cuerpo de Paz. Arboles comunes del Paraguay: Ñandeyvyramatakuera; Carrera de Ingeniería Foresta, Cuerpo de Paz, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias: San Lorenzo, Paraguay, 1987; 435p. [Google Scholar]
  3. FAO; Pérez de Molas, L.P. Manual de Familias y Géneros de Árboles del Paraguay; Instituto Forestal Nacional del Paraguay: San Lorenzo, Paraguay, 2016; 228p. [Google Scholar]
  4. GTZ (Cooperación Alemana al Desarrollo); FCA-UNA (Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias-Universidad Nacional de Asunción). Practical Guide to Tree Species of the Eastern Region of Paraguay; GTZ, FCA-UNA: Asunción, Paraguay, 2007. [Google Scholar]
  5. Cuerpo de Paz, Paraguay. Manual Técnico: Los Árboles Más Utilizados en el Paraguay; Universidad Nacional de Asuncion, Ciencias Agrarias: Asunción, Paraguay, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  6. Méreles, F.M.; Cartes, J.L.; Clay, R.P.; Cacciali, P.; Paradeda, C.; Rodas, O.; Yanosky, A. Análisis cualitativo para la definición de las ecorregiones de Paraguay occidental. Paraquaria Nat. 2013, 1, 12–20. [Google Scholar]
  7. Naumann, C.M.; Coronel, M.M. Atlas Ambiental del Paraguay: Con Fines Educativos; Cooperación Técnica Alemana (GTZ), Secretaria del Ambiente del Paraguay (SEAM) y Ministerio de Educación y Cultura del Paraguay (MEC): Asunción, Paraguay, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  8. IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2021-2. Available online: https://www.iucnredlist.org (accessed on 15 November 2023).
  9. MADES (Ministerio del Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible). Ley de Deforestación Cer; MADES: Bogotá, Colombia, 2004; LEY N° 2524/04.
  10. Lezcano, M.I.D.; Aguero, R.A.M.; Meza, M.J.A.; Ortega, J.D.R. Consumo de leña en olerías durante la etapa de cocción de ladrillos en el distrito de Tobatí, Paraguay. Rev. Cient. UCSA 2021, 8, 75–88. [Google Scholar]
  11. Keller, H. Plantas usadas por los guaraníes de misiones (Argentina) para la fabricación y el a condicionamiento de instrumentos musicales. Darwiniana 2010, 48, 7–16. [Google Scholar]
  12. Benítez, B.; González, F.; Pérez, S.; Bertoni, S. Elaboración de artesanía popular en madera en comunidades urbanas de Asunción, Areguá y Tobatí (Paraguay). Bot. Complut. 2018, 42, 149–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Brandt, J.; Cramatke, C.; Wagner, I. The polychrome wooden sculptures of the Jesuit reductions in Paraguay: A technical study. In Trading Paintings and Painter’s Materials; Archetype Publications: London, UK, 2019; 170p. [Google Scholar]
  14. Scholz, G.; Windeisen, E.; Liebner, F.; Baucker, E.; Bues, C.-T. Wood Anatomical Features and Chemical Composition of Prosopis Kuntzei from the Paraguayan Chaco. IAWA J. 2012, 31, 39–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. MADES (Ministerio del Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible). Resolución N° 2243/06. 2006. Por la Cual se Actualiza el Listado de las Especies Protegidas de la Vida Silvestre en Peligro de Extinción; Ministerio del Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible: Asunción, Paraguay, 2006.
  16. Inside Wood. Available online: http://insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu/search (accessed on 15 November 2023).
  17. Wood Database. Available online: http://wood-database.com (accessed on 15 November 2023).
  18. Forest Products Laboratory, USFS (United States Forest Service). Wood Properties (Techsheets)—Tropical Hardwoods. Available online: https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/ (accessed on 15 November 2023).
  19. Marchiori, J.N.; Santos, S.R. Anatomía do lenho de Plinia trunciflora (O.Berg) Kausel (Myrtaceae). Balduinia 2009, 19, 26–30. [Google Scholar]
  20. Denardi, L.; Marchiori, J.N.; Ferreira, M.R. Anatomía da madeira de Plinia rivularis (Camb.) Rotman. Balduinia 2005, 3, 21–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Santos, S.R.; Marchiori, J.N. Madeiras do Rio Grande do Sul: Descrição microscópica de 34 Mirtáceas nativas. Anaterra Santa María 2011, 4, 80. [Google Scholar]
  22. Santos, S.R. Contribuição ao Estudo Anatômico das Myrtaceae Nativas do Rio Grande do Sul. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade Federal de Santa María, Santa María, Brasil, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  23. Santos, G.U.C.A.; Callado, C.H.; Costa Souza, M.; Costa, C.G. Wood anatomy of Myrciaria, Neomitranthes, Plinia and Siphoneugena species (Myrteae, Myrtaceae). IAWA J. 2013, 34, 313–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Stange, R.; Vieira, H.C.; Rios, P.D.; Nsgoski, S. Wood and charcoal anatomy of four Myrtaceae species. Cerne 2018, 24, 190–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Maderas Argentina’s. Available online: http://www.maderasenargentina.com.ar/ (accessed on 11 November 2023).
  26. Barros, C.F.; Callado, C.H.; Cunha, M.; Marcon, M.L.; Tamaio, N.; Marquete, O.; Costa, C. Madeiras da Mata Atlántica: Anatomía do Lenho de Espécies Ocorrentes nos Remanescentes Forestáis do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; Instituto de Pesquisas Jardín Botánico do Rio de Janeiro: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  27. IBDF (Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimiento Florestal). Madeiras da Amazonia—Caracteristicas e Utilização; Indian Broadcasting & Digital Foundation: New Delhi, India, 1988; Volume 2, 236p. [Google Scholar]
  28. Lucas, E.J.; Harris, S.A.; Mazine, F.F.; Belsham, S.R.; Nic Lughada, E.; Telford, A.; Gasson, P.E.; Chase, M.W. Suprageneric phylogenetics of Myrteae, the generically richest tribe in Myrtaceae (Myrtales). Taxon 2007, 56, 1105–1128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. He, X.; Groover, A.T. The genomic of wood formation in angiosperm trees. In Comparative and Evolutionary Genomics of Angiosperm Trees, Plant Genetics and Genomics: Crops and Models; Springer International: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 205–225. [Google Scholar]
  30. Su, W.; Liang, R. The complete chloroplast genome of a fast-growing tree Lophostemon confertus (Myrtaceae). Mitochondrial DNA Part B 2023, 8, 26–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Dias-Garcia, L.; Padilla-Ramirez, J.S. Development of single nucleotide polymorphism markers and genetic diversity in guava (Psidium guajava L.). Plants People Planet 2022, 5, 58–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Wilson, P.G.; Heslewood, M.M.; Tarran, M.A. Three new tribes in Myrtaceae and reassessment of Kanieae. Aust. Syst. Bot. 2022, 35, 279–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Brummitt, R.K. Vascular Plant Families and Genera, 1st ed.; Royal Botanic Gardens Kew: London, UK, 1992. [Google Scholar]
  34. Mabberley, D.J. A portable dictionary of the higher plants. In The Plant-Book, 2nd ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1997; 858p. [Google Scholar]
  35. Metcalfe, C.R.; Chalk, L. Anatomy of the Dicotyledons: Leaves, Stem, and Wood in Relation to Taxonomy with Notes on Economic Uses; Oxford at the Clarendon Press: London, UK, 1950; Volume 1, 806p. [Google Scholar]
  36. Simpson, M.G. Plant Systematics, 2nd ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 2010; 752p. [Google Scholar]
  37. Barrie, F.R. Synopsis of Plinia in Mesoamerica. Novon 2004, 14, 380–400. [Google Scholar]
  38. Van Vliet, G.J.C.M.; Baas, P. Wood anatomy and classification of the Myrtales. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 1984, 71, 783–800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Schmid, R.; Baas, P. The occurrence of scalariform perforation plates and helical vessel wall thickenings in wood of Myrtaceae. IAWA J. 1984, 5, 197–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Dias-Lerne, C.D.; Gasson, P.; Lughadha, E.N. Wood anatomy of four Myrtaceae genera in the subtribe myrciinae from South America. IAWA J. 1995, 16, 87–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Wilson, P.G.; O’Brien, M.M.; Heslewood, M.M.; Quinn, C.J. Relationships within Myrtaceae sensu lato based on a matK phylogeny. Plant Syst. Evol. 2005, 251, 3–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Govaerts, R.; Sobral, M.; Ashton, P.; Barrie, F.; Holst, B.K.; Landrum, L.L.; Matsumoto, K.; Mazine, F.F.; Lughadha, E.N.; Proenca, C. World Checklist of Myrtaceae; Royal Botanic Gardens Kew: London, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  43. Gorgin, J.; da Boit Martinello, K.; Franco, D.S.P.; Netto, M.S.; Piccilli, D.G.A.; Luiz Foletto, E.; Silva, L.F.O.; Luiz Dotto, G. Efficient removal of naproxen from aqueous solution by highly porous activated carbon produced from Grape tree (Plinia cauliflora) fruit peels. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 106820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Salomão, A.T.; Vasconcellos-Neto, J. Population Dynamics and Structure of the Neotropical Bark Bug Phloea subquadrata (Hemiptera: Phloeidae) on Plina cauliflora (Myrtaceae). Popul. Ecol. 2010, 39, 1724–1730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Waller, S.B.; Peter, C.M.; Hoffmann, J.F.; Cleff, M.B.; Faria, R.O.; Zani, J. Jabuticaba [Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts]: A Brazilian fruit with a promising application against itraconazole-susceptible and -resistant Sporothrix brasiliensis. Nat. Prod. Res. 2020, 35, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Wiszovaty, L.; Caballero, S.; Oviedo, C.; Ozuna, F.; Méreles, L. Plinia peruviana “Yvapurũ” fruits and marmalade from Paraguay: Autochthon products with antioxidant potential. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of Ia ValSe-Food Network, Lisbon, Portugal, 21–22 October 2019. [Google Scholar]
  47. Pin, A.; González, G.; Marín, G.; Céspedes, G.; Cretton, S.; Christen, P.; Roguet, D. Plantas Medicinales del Jardín Botánico de Asunción; Asociación Etnobotánica Paraguaya: Asunción, Paraguay, 2009; 441p. [Google Scholar]
  48. Céspedes, G.; Weber, E.; González, G. Especies Útiles de la Flora Paraguaya: Frutos Comestibles; Asociación Etnobotánica Paraguaya: Asunción, Paraguay, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  49. Missouri Botanical Garden. Tropicos. Inventario de Colecciones Botánicas de Paraguay. Available online: http://legacy.tropicos.org/ProjectAdvSearch.aspx?projectid=44&langid=66 (accessed on 11 November 2023).
  50. Instituto de Botánica Darwinion. Flora del Conosur: Catálogo de Las Plantas Vasculares. Available online: http://www.darwin.edu.ar/proyectos/floraargentina/fa.html (accessed on 12 November 2023).
  51. Flora do Brasil. Jardim Botánico do Rio de Janeiro. Available online: http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/ (accessed on 10 November 2023).
  52. DGEEC (Dirección General de Estadísticas, Encuestas y Censo). Censo Nacional de Población y Viviendas; DGEEC: Fernando de la Mora, Paraguay, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  53. IPA (Instituto Paraguayo de Artesanía). Available online: https://www.artesania.gov.py/ (accessed on 11 November 2023).
  54. Resico, C. Análisis de la Información Sobre Productos Forestales No Madereros en Paraguay; FAO: Santiago, Chile, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  55. Nascimento Silva, S.; Santos, K.C.M.; Costa, W.S.; Castilhori, M.F.; Callado, C.H. Anatomical investigation of Wood from two old bridges as part of the historical record of the flora of the Atlantic Forest. IAWA J. 2023, 44, 85–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Roman, A.Q. Dendrogeomorphology as a tool to depict hydrogeomorphic processes in the tropics. Revista Cartographia 2023, 106, 33–51. [Google Scholar]
  57. Andreu-Hayles, L.; Tejedor, E.; D’Arrigo, R.; Locosselli, G.M.; Rodriguez-Canton, M.; Daux, V.; Oelkers, R.; Pacheco-Solana, A.; Paredes-Villanueva, K.; Rodriguez-Morata, C. Dendrochronological advances in the tropical and subtropical Americas: Research priorities and future directions. Dendrochronologia 2023, 81, 126124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. SEN (Secretaria de Emergencia Nacional). Atlas de Riesgos de Desastres de la Republica del Paraguay; Secretaria de Emergencia Nacional: Asunción, Paraguay, 2018; 182p. [Google Scholar]
  59. Shmulsky, R.; Jones, P.D. Forest Products & Wood Science: An Introduction, 6th ed.; Wiley-Blackwell Publishing: Ames, IA, USA, 2011; 477p. [Google Scholar]
  60. Hoadley, R.B. Identifying Wood: Accurate Results with Simple Tools; The Taunton Press Inc.: Newton, CT, USA, 1990; 223p. [Google Scholar]
  61. Burger, L.M.; Richter, H.G. Anatomía da Madeira; Nobel: São Paulo, Brasil, 1991; 154p. [Google Scholar]
  62. Forest Products Laboratory. Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory: Madison, WI, USA, 2010; 508p.
  63. Simpson, W.T. Specific Gravity, Moisture Content, and Density Relationship for Wood; General Technical Report 76; Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory: Madison, WI, USA, 1993; 13p. Available online: https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr76.pdf (accessed on 11 November 2023).
  64. IAWA (International Association of Wood Anatomists). IAWA list of microscopic features for hardwood identification. IAWA Bull New Ser. 1989, 10, 220–332. [Google Scholar]
  65. Wheeler, E. Inside Wood—A web resource for hardwood anatomy. IAWA J. 2011, 32, 199–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Wheeler, E.; Baas, P. Wood identification. A review. IAWA J. 1998, 19, 241–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Angyalossy, V.; Pace, M.R.; Evert, R.F.; Marcati, C.R.; Oskolski, A.A.; Terrazas, T.; Kotina, E.; Lens, F.; Mazzoni-Viveros, S.C.; Angles, G.; et al. IAWA list of microscopic bark features. IAWA J. 2016, 37, 517–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Rasband, W.S.; Image, J. U. S. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 1997–2018. Available online: https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/ (accessed on 11 November 2023).
  69. Chattaway, M.M. Proposed Standards for Numerical Values used in Describing Woods. Trop. Woods 1932, 29, 20–28. [Google Scholar]
  70. Zimmermann, M.H.; Jeje, A.A. Vessel-length distribution in stems of some American woody plants. Can. J. Bot. 1981, 59, 1882–1892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Zimmermann, M.H.; Potter, D. Vessel-length distribution in branches, stems, and roots of Acer rubrum L. IAWA Bull New Ser. 1982, 3, 103–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Rosell, J.A.; Olson, M.E.; Anfodillo, T. Scaling of Xylem Vessel Diameter with Plant Size: Causes, Predictions, and Outstanding Questions. Curr. Forestry Rep. 2017, 3, 46–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Carlquist, S.J. Comparative Wood Anatomy. Systematic, Ecological, and Evolutionary Aspects of Dicotyledon Wood, 2nd ed.; Springer Series in Wood Science: Berlin, Germany, 2001; 393p. [Google Scholar]
  74. Alves, E.S.; Angyalossy-Alfonso, V. Ecological trends in the wood anatomy of Brazilian species. IAWA J. 2000, 21, 3–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Chery, J.G.; Pace, M.R.; Acevedo-Rodríguez, P.; Specht, C.D.; Rothfels, C.J. Modification during early plant development promote the evolution of nature’s most complex woods. Curr. Biol. 2020, 30, 237–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Olson, M.E.; Anfodillo, T.; Rosell, J.A.; Petit, G.; Crivellaro, A.; Isnard, S.; León-Gómez, C. Universal hydraulics of the flowering plants: Vessel diameter scales with stem length across angiosperm lineages, habits, and climates. Ecol. Lett. 2014, 17, 988–997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Quevedo Fernández, L.M.; Pérez de Molas, L.; Folmann, W.T.; Rodríguez, S.A.; Ruiz Diaz, L.G.; Peralta-Kulik, N.; María, X.; Palacios, S.; Nogueira Días, A.; de Magalhaes Miranda, G. Valoración económica, composición, estructura y diversidad florística del bosque meso xerofítico semicaducifolio de Schinopsis balansae Engl., Ecorregión Chaco Húmedo, Paraguay. Investig. Agrar. 2021, 23, 101–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. ITTO (International Tropical Timber Organization); IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature). Guidelines for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in Tropical Timber Production Forests; ITTO Policy Development Series No. 17; ITTO; IUCN: Gland, Switzerland, 2009; 120p. [Google Scholar]
Forests 16 00406 g001
Figure 1. Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (a,b) in bloom, (c) fruitification, and (d) polished cross-section and transverse plane.
Figure 1. Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts (a,b) in bloom, (c) fruitification, and (d) polished cross-section and transverse plane.
Forests 16 00406 g001
Forests 16 00406 g002
Figure 2. Plinia rivularis (Camb.) Rotman. (a) trunk in habitat, (b) specimen in bloom, (c) fallen fruits, and (d) polished cross-section of stem.
Figure 2. Plinia rivularis (Camb.) Rotman. (a) trunk in habitat, (b) specimen in bloom, (c) fallen fruits, and (d) polished cross-section of stem.
Forests 16 00406 g002
Forests 16 00406 g003
Figure 3. Light microscope images of Plinia peruviana. Magnification for images (a–d): 400×. Arrows point to described feature. Cross-section (a,b): Diffusely porous patterns with indistinct growth rings, solitary vessels, and occasional vessel clusters. Diffuse-in aggregate apotracheal axial parenchyma, colored extractives, and thick-walled fibers are observed. Tangential plane (c,d): Vessels with simple perforation plates and alternate intervessel pits. Ray cells 1–2 cells wide.
Figure 3. Light microscope images of Plinia peruviana. Magnification for images (a–d): 400×. Arrows point to described feature. Cross-section (a,b): Diffusely porous patterns with indistinct growth rings, solitary vessels, and occasional vessel clusters. Diffuse-in aggregate apotracheal axial parenchyma, colored extractives, and thick-walled fibers are observed. Tangential plane (c,d): Vessels with simple perforation plates and alternate intervessel pits. Ray cells 1–2 cells wide.
Forests 16 00406 g003
Forests 16 00406 g004
Figure 4. Light microscope images of P. rivularis. Magnification: (a) 100×; (b–d) 400×. Arrows point to the discussed features in each photo. Cross-section (a,b): Indistinct growth ring boundaries, diffuse porous vessels arranged in a diagonal pattern. Vessels: solitary, with infrequent clusters and thick-walled fibers. Diffuse apotracheal axial parenchyma in banded aggregates. Radial plane (c,d): Rays composed of procumbent body cells and two to four marginal rows of upright cells. Diffuse axial parenchyma with prismatic crystals in chambers.
Figure 4. Light microscope images of P. rivularis. Magnification: (a) 100×; (b–d) 400×. Arrows point to the discussed features in each photo. Cross-section (a,b): Indistinct growth ring boundaries, diffuse porous vessels arranged in a diagonal pattern. Vessels: solitary, with infrequent clusters and thick-walled fibers. Diffuse apotracheal axial parenchyma in banded aggregates. Radial plane (c,d): Rays composed of procumbent body cells and two to four marginal rows of upright cells. Diffuse axial parenchyma with prismatic crystals in chambers.
Forests 16 00406 g004
Table 1. Measurements of P. peruviana studied in Paraguay. The name in quotation marks is the common name in Guaraní. Values with ± indicate one standard deviation. Specific gravity and density were measured with oven-dried wood.
Table 1. Measurements of P. peruviana studied in Paraguay. The name in quotation marks is the common name in Guaraní. Values with ± indicate one standard deviation. Specific gravity and density were measured with oven-dried wood.
Plinia peruviana, “yva puru”
Elevation: 132 mCoordinates: 25°19′33″ S 57°22′34″ W
DBH (cm)Specific
Gravity		Density
(g/cm3)		Vessel Element Diameter
(µm)		Vessel Element Length
(µm)		Ray Height
(µm)		Avg. Ray Seriation
(Number of Cells)
4.60.800.9133.5 ± 6.3384.4 ± 83202.5 ± 41.72–3
Table 2. Measurements of P. rivularis studied in Paraguay. The name in quotation marks is the common name in Guaraní. Values with ± indicate one standard deviation. Specific gravity was measured with oven-dried wood. Density at equilibrium moisture content measured indoors (12 ± 1%).
Table 2. Measurements of P. rivularis studied in Paraguay. The name in quotation marks is the common name in Guaraní. Values with ± indicate one standard deviation. Specific gravity was measured with oven-dried wood. Density at equilibrium moisture content measured indoors (12 ± 1%).
Plinia rivularis, “yvaporaity”
Elevation: 140 mCoordinates: 25°19′44″ S 57°22′46″ W
DBH
(cm)		Specific GravityDensity
(g/cm3)		Vessel Element Diameter
(µm)		Vessel Element Length
(µm)		Ray Height
(µm)		Avg. Ray Seriation
(Number of Cells)
6.30.961.159.7 ± 14443.2 ± 102356.6 ± 1302–3
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Cervantes, A.G.; Robinson, S.C. Explorations into Accessible Wood Identification in Paraguay: Wood Anatomy of Plinia rivularis and Plinia peruviana. Forests 2025, 16, 406. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030406

AMA Style

Cervantes AG, Robinson SC. Explorations into Accessible Wood Identification in Paraguay: Wood Anatomy of Plinia rivularis and Plinia peruviana. Forests. 2025; 16(3):406. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030406

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cervantes, Andrew G., and Seri C. Robinson. 2025. "Explorations into Accessible Wood Identification in Paraguay: Wood Anatomy of Plinia rivularis and Plinia peruviana" Forests 16, no. 3: 406. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030406

APA Style

Cervantes, A. G., & Robinson, S. C. (2025). Explorations into Accessible Wood Identification in Paraguay: Wood Anatomy of Plinia rivularis and Plinia peruviana. Forests, 16(3), 406. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030406

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop