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Article

Growth Performance of Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) in Relation to Peatland Restoration in South Sumatra and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

by
A-Ram Yang
1,
Eunho Choi
1,*,
Hyunyoung Yang
2,
Jumi Cha
1 and
Novisari Wahyuni
3
1
Forest Strategy Research Division, Future Forest Strategy Department, National Institute of Forest Science, Seoul 02455, Republic of Korea
2
Forest Ecology Division, Forest Disaster and Environmental Research Department, National Institute of Forest Science, Seoul 02455, Republic of Korea
3
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Situ Gede, Sindang Barang, Bogor 16115, Indonesia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(11), 1740; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111740
Submission received: 10 September 2025 / Revised: 30 October 2025 / Accepted: 12 November 2025 / Published: 18 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Effects on Forest and Peatland Ecosystems)
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Abstract

Peatlands store approximately 30% of global terrestrial carbon, and tropical peatlands contribute 10%–30% of the total peatland carbon storage. Indonesia holds approximately 15% of this resource. Given the rapid degradation of these ecosystems, the Indonesian government has promoted revegetation, identifying Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Tamanu) as a promising restoration species. However, long-term studies on Tamanu performance and optimal environmental conditions in actual peatland settings are lacking. This study aimed to identify the environmental characteristics conducive to Tamanu growth. We planted Tamanu at Perigi in South Sumatra and Buntoi in Central Kalimantan and monitored its growth over a five-year period. We assessed the soil properties and hydrological conditions at both sites. Results revealed that Tamanu trees at the Perigi site, with higher soil nutrient levels, initially exhibited greater root collar diameter, height, and stem volume compared to those at Buntoi. However, prolonged flooding in Perigi caused complete mortality at 60 months. In contrast, despite lower soil nutrient levels, the Buntoi site maintained a survival rate of 52% because of the more stable water levels. These findings suggest that hydrological management is more critical than soil nutrient conditions for the long-term survival of Tamanu in tropical peatlands, informing effective peatland restoration strategies.

1. Introduction

The peatlands are ecosystems where peat, comprising partially decomposed plant material, accumulates over long periods under waterlogged, anaerobic conditions [1,2]. The global area of peatlands is estimated to be 1.85–4.23 million km2 [2,3,4], and they are widely distributed across tropical, temperate, and boreal regions. Peatlands cover only 3%–4% of the world’s terrestrial surface; however, they can store 30% of all terrestrial carbon (C) in the soil [5,6]. Owing to their higher carbon storage capacity, the conservation and restoration of peatlands is considered an important means of responding to climate change today [7,8,9]. Peatlands exist across a wide range of regions, and tropical peatlands have unique ecological characteristics. Tropical peatlands are distinguished from temperate or boreal peatlands because belowground peat is mainly composed of dead woody debris rather than herbs or moss, and large forests can develop aboveground [10,11]. This structural feature allows tropical peatlands to store substantial amounts of organic carbon, not only in thick peat layers but also in the aboveground forest biomass.
However, these ecosystems are currently experiencing serious crises. Tropical peatlands mostly exist in developing countries, which are experiencing rapid degradation owing to accelerated development processes. In Indonesia, which contains approximately 15% of the global tropical peatland area [12], half of the tropical peatlands have been degraded because of land conversion for plantations, extensive drainage, and intentional and unintentional fires [13,14]. The degradation caused by drainage, drying, and fire damage leads to irreversible and permanent changes in tropical peatlands because hydrological factors are key determinants of tropical peatland characteristics. Specifically, drainage lowers the groundwater level; increases bulk density, soil pH, decomposition rate, electrical conductivity (EC), and cation exchange capacity (CEC.); decreases fiber content, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity; and induces higher carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from peat soils [15,16,17,18]. As a result, a paradoxical situation occurs in which peatlands that once served as carbon sinks are transformed into significant carbon sources.
To address the serious degradation of peatlands, the Indonesian government recently established the Peatland and Mangrove Restoration Agency (Badan Restorasi Gambut dan Mangrove, BRGM) and is promoting the ‘3R (Rewetting, Revegetation, Revitalization)’ strategy to restore degraded peatlands and mangrove ecosystems [19]. For successful restoration, it is essential to identify and select appropriate species that can adapt to the dynamic hydrological conditions of tropical peatlands while also contributing to the livelihoods of local communities. This comprehensive approach considers the ecological restoration and economic sustainability of local communities that rely on tropical peatlands. In this context, the Indonesian government emphasizes revegetation using tree species that can serve as high-value-added biofuels [20]. As a potential species that aligns with this restoration strategy, Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Tamanu) is gaining attention.
Tamanu is typically found in sandy coastal soils; however, it has demonstrated the potential to survive and grow in a variety of soil environments, including degraded land, wetlands, and peat soils. In particular, its non-edible oil content makes it a promising biofuel feedstock aligned with the government’s emphasis on high-value-added biofuel species for restoration [21]. Moreover, Tamanu produces fruits and seeds year-round, and the harvested seeds show high germination rates and rapid initial growth even when sown directly in peat soils, providing stable income and livelihood benefits for local communities [22]. These characteristics indicate that Tamanu has strong potential as a suitable species for tropical peatland restoration. However, tropical peatlands present distinctive environmental challenges that may constrain the survival and growth of Tamanu and other tree species. These include oxygen limitation from waterlogging and high rainfall, and nutrient deficiency in acidic soils despite high organic matter content [23,24]. Additionally, tropical peatlands experience extreme seasonal variations—prolonged flooding during wet seasons and severe drought during dry seasons—that create dynamic hydrological conditions fundamentally altering soil properties [25,26]. Therefore, scientific verification of the long-term survival and growth of Tamanu remains limited, and systematic research is required to assess the practical feasibility of seedling survival and growth under these extreme conditions, as well as to identify the conditions that support optimal growth.
Previous studies have reported on the short-term growth performance of Tamanu planted in tropical peatlands in Indonesia. Tata and Pradjadinata [27] planted four tree species, including Tamanu, on 2.5 ha of burned and degraded tropical peatland in the Tumbang Nusa Forest in Central Kalimantan. The study found that after eight months, the survival rate of Tamanu was relatively good at 40%, although the relative growth rates in height and root collar diameter were low. Maimunah et al. [28] and Leksono et al. [29] reported that Tamanu achieved a survival rate of over 80% at 12 and 24 months, respectively, and showed the most notable growth performance compared to other tree species on the degraded Buntoi peatlands in Central Kalimantan. Considering that the survival rate of Tamanu in mineral soil ranges from 69% to 95% in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, it survived well even in degraded peatlands, despite exhibiting slightly lower growth rates [29]. However, these studies were limited to short-term observations, and our understanding of the factors influencing Tamanu growth and survival in tropical peatlands is still limited.
While previous studies provide valuable data on Tamanu’s short-term performance in tropical peatlands, scientific verification of long-term survival and growth remains limited. Moreover, the relationship between site-specific environmental characteristics—particularly soil nutrient levels and flooding regimes—and Tamanu’s sustained long-term performance remains poorly understood. This knowledge gap limits the ability to predict which peatland sites are most suitable for long-term successful restoration. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the initial survival rate and growth performance of Tamanu planted in two tropical peatlands with contrasting soil nutrient levels and flooding histories in Indonesia, with the goal of understanding how these site-specific environmental conditions influence Tamanu’s establishment and inform long-term restoration success. By clarifying these relationships, this research will provide critical guidance for site selection and restoration strategy optimization, thereby enhancing the long-term feasibility and sustainability of peatland restoration efforts.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Site and Tree Planting

The research sites were located in Perigi, Ogan Komering Ilir District, South Sumatra, and Buntoi, Pulang Pisau District, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Figure 1, Table 1). Both sites were topogenous peat types in degraded peatlands. The sites were restored using Tamanu seedlings (average 5 mm of root collar diameter and 30 cm) with a planting distance of 4 m × 4 m in December 2018.

2.2. Soil Analysis

To analyze the soil properties, soil samples were collected from a soil depth of 50 cm to the ground surface using a Russian peat auger (diameter 5 cm and length 50 cm) [30]. Samples were collected randomly from three points at the Perigi site in 2019 and from eight random points at the Buntoi site in 2017, based on the sampling method described by [31]. The collected soil samples were adequately dried in the shade and used for chemical property analyses. Soil pH was measured using a pH meter using the 1:5 H2O method; total nitrogen was analyzed using the Kjeldahl method; organic carbon density was measured using the Bray No. 1 method; total organic carbon concentration was measured using the Walkley–Black and LOI (loss on ignition) methods; and cation exchange concentrations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+) were analyzed using the atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) method at the IPB Laboratory in Bogor, Indonesia [32,33,34,35,36,37].

2.3. Water Level and Rainfall Measurement

Water levels were measured using a PVC piezometer with a diameter of 5 cm and a length of 2 m, which was inserted into the peat soil (Figure 2a) [38]. The pipe was covered with a sock affixed with tape or a cap to prevent peat from filling the pipe from the base. The top of the pipe was also capped. Water levels were measured monthly using a measuring tape and a ping-pong ball tied to a string, measuring from the top of a pipe down to the water level. The distance between the top of the pipe and the ground surface was subtracted to determine the water level. Measurements were conducted from April 2022 to November 2023.
Rainfall was measured using a PVC ombrometer with a diameter of 6.75 cm and a length of 1 m (Figure 2b) [39]. The ombrometer was installed in the field at a height of 1 m above the ground in an open area located in the nearest village to the site (3°07′48.21″ S, 105°4′27.79″ E in Perigi and 2°50′17.7″ S, 114°09′31.2″ E in Buntoi). Rainfall data were collected daily in the morning from April 2022 to October 2023.

2.4. Growth Measurement

A barcode was attached to each Tamanu plantation tree, with each barcode containing a unique number corresponding to its study site. The root collar diameter ( R C D ) and tree height ( H ) were measured annually using digital calipers and wooden rulers (sticks) every 6 months to 1 year after planting from March 2019 to December 2023. The survival rate was calculated as the proportion of surviving individuals to the total number of planted individuals [40]. The H /   R C D ratios were measured using the measured values of R C D and H . To evaluate the initial quality of the planted trees, we calculated the stem volume using Equation (1) [41]:
S t e m   v o l u m e c m 3 t r e e − 1 = π R C D 2 H 6
where R C D is the root collar diameter (cm), and H is the tree height (cm).

2.5. Statistical Analysis

We used t-tests to compare the average soil properties, root collar diameter, height, survival rate, H /   R C D ratio, and stem volume of Tamanu between the two sites. Additionally, we conducted a two-way ANOVA to assess the differences in tree survival rates between the two sites over time following planting. All statistical analyses were performed using SAS software, version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) [42].

3. Results

3.1. Site Characteristics

3.1.1. Soil Properties

The Perigi and Buntoi sites were both characterized by strongly acidic soil conditions; however, the Buntoi site exhibited a significantly lower pH (3.4 ± 0.07) compared to the Perigi site (4.1 ± 0.17; p = 0.0018). In addition to soil acidity, major soil fertility indicators, including total nitrogen, organic carbon, and cation exchange capacity, were markedly higher at the Perigi site than at the Buntoi site (Table 2). Specifically, the total nitrogen content in Perigi (1.62 ± 0.20%) was substantially greater than that at Buntoi (0.21 ± 0.01%), indicating a significant difference. Similarly, organic carbon concentration was significantly elevated at the Perigi site (51.60 ± 0.61%) relative to the Buntoi site (7.23 ± 0.45%). The cation exchange capacity followed a similar trend, with the Perigi site showing a notably higher value (80.89 ± 2.92 cmol⋅kg−1) than the Buntoi site (30.79 ± 1.51 cmol⋅kg−1). Other soil properties, such as available phosphorus and exchangeable cations, tended to be higher at the Perigi site than at the Buntoi site; however, these differences were not statistically significant.

3.1.2. Water Level and Rainfall

Although both sites exhibited seasonal water-level fluctuations, these fluctuations occurred at markedly different elevations relative to the soil surface. At the Buntoi site, water levels ranged from −148.6 cm to −7.7 cm during the dry season and from −55.3 cm to −1.2 cm during the wet season, relative to the soil surface. In contrast, at the Perigi site, water levels were generally above the soil surface during most of the study period, regardless of season, often exceeding typical wet-season levels (Figure 3a). Notably, from September 2022 to June 2023, the water level in Perigi remained elevated (8 cm to 35 cm above the surface) for approximately 10 months, resulting in the prolonged flooding of planted trees. After this period, the water level dropped dramatically during the dry season, reaching as low as −120 cm.
These contrasting hydrological patterns correspond to substantial differences in rainfall between the sites. Monthly precipitation at the Buntoi site was generally below 50 mm, with no rainfall recorded in some months (Figure 3b). In contrast, the Perigi site received approximately 3000 mm of cumulative rainfall from May 2022 to April 2023, indicating persistently high precipitation throughout both seasons. Compared to the 30-year climatological averages from Indonesia’s Meteorological Agency [43], Perigi’s annual rainfall of approximately 3000 mm exceeded the long-term average of 2598 mm, whereas Buntoi’s low precipitation was consistent with the dry season range (60–106 mm) but appeared to persist throughout the study period [43].

3.2. Growth Performance

3.2.1. Survival Rate

At the Perigi site, the survival rate of planted trees was 100% during the initial 2 years and slightly decreased but remained higher than that at the Buntoi site for up to 39 months (Table 3, p < 0.001 for 6–39 months). However, the survival rate dramatically decreased between 39 and 60 months and became lower than that in Buntoi (p < 0.001 at 47–60 months).

3.2.2. Tree Growth

The root collar diameter (D0) of Tamanu was significantly greater at the Perigi site compared to the Buntoi site from 12 to 39 months after planting (Table 4). At 39 months, the mean diameter at Perigi reached 80.36 ± 5.74 mm, while that at Buntoi was 67.82   ±   1.38 mm (p = 0.0440), indicating more vigorous growth under the environmental conditions at Perigi during the early and mid-growth stages. Tree height did not differ significantly between the two sites for up to 33 months. However, a difference was observed at 39 months, with trees at the Buntoi site attaining a mean height of 302.65   ±   7.44 cm, compared to 201.85   ±   9.14 cm at Perigi (p  < 0.0001). The height-to-root collar diameter (H/RCD) ratio at Perigi decreased steadily over time, from 44.97   ±   4.35 at 12 months to 28.22   ±   1.23 at 39 months, suggesting a balanced allocation of resources between height and diameter. In contrast, the H/RCD ratio at Buntoi also declined but remained consistently higher throughout the same period, reaching 35.73 ± 1.00 at 39 months (p < 0.0001).
Overall, growth performance in terms of root collar diameter, H/RCD ratio, and stem volume was superior at the Perigi site, with thicker and shorter trees. In contrast, trees at the Buntoi site were taller but thinner during the later growth stages (Figure 4).

4. Discussion

4.1. Effects of Environmental Factors on Growth Performance

The soil composition at the Perigi site was within or exceeded the typical range for Indonesian peatlands (total nitrogen: 0.91%–1.68%, available phosphorus: 0.03–0.36 mg kg−1, organic carbon: 48.71%–51.93%) [16,44,45,46,47]. In contrast, the Buntoi site exhibited lower values than the Perigi area and fell below the typical range for Indonesian peatlands. These soil components are known to enhance early tree development by supporting protein synthesis and chlorophyll production, and by improving soil structure and nutrient retention [46,47]. Additionally, the Perigi area showed higher levels of exchangeable calcium and magnesium than the Buntoi area, which contribute to root development and photosynthetic efficiency [40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52].
The superior soil nutrient levels recorded at the Perigi site compared to the Buntoi site can be attributed to varying water levels in the peatlands and, consequently, to different peat thicknesses between sites [22,53,54]. These favorable soil conditions explain the superior early growth performance observed at the Perigi site during the initial two years, as evidenced by its 100% survival rate and higher values of growth parameters such as root collar diameter and stem volume. The Perigi area, with higher soil nutrient levels, showed a 98% higher survival rate, a 36.2% higher root collar diameter, and a 2.8% greater tree height than the Buntoi area during the initial two years.
However, the initial soil-based advantage at the Perigi site was ultimately negated by hydrological stress. Water levels in the tropical peatlands of Indonesia typically fluctuate seasonally, ranging from − 150 to − 30 cm during dry seasons and averaging 10–20 cm above the surface during wet seasons (November–March) [55,56,57,58]. Compared with these patterns, both the Perigi and Buntoi sites were within the typical range during the dry season; however, during the wet season, Perigi showed higher than average flood depths, whereas Buntoi showed lower depths. The Perigi site experienced prolonged flooding for approximately six months, with water levels exceeding 8 cm between 39 and 47 months. This flooding resulted in anaerobic soil conditions that impaired root respiration and nutrient uptake, leading to a rapid decline in the survival rates of planted Tamanu trees, despite the preferred soil conditions for growth, ultimately resulting in complete mortality by 60 months [59]. In contrast, Buntoi maintained relatively low water levels, even during the wet season, supporting long-term survival despite its comparatively lower soil nutrient levels.

4.2. Implications for Tamanu Restoration Management

This study highlights that hydrological conditions, particularly water-level dynamics, have a more significant impact on the long-term survival of Tamanu during tropical peatland restoration than soil nutrient availability. Although favorable soil conditions at the Perigi site supported vigorous early growth, all trees ultimately died under prolonged high water levels. In contrast, the trees at the Buntoi site, which had less fertile soil but more stable hydrological conditions, survived during the monitoring period.
Previous studies have reported that Tamanu demonstrates high survival rates under relatively mild flooding conditions, such as water levels maintained at 2 cm over a four-week period [60,61,62]. Based on these findings, this species is generally classified as flood-tolerant. However, the hydrological conditions observed in our study were significantly more extreme, with water levels reaching 35 cm and persisting for over 10 months. Under these harsh and realistic restoration conditions, Tamanu failed to survive. This suggests that the species’ flood tolerance may be more limited than previously understood and that earlier studies may not fully capture the challenges posed by long-term, high-intensity flooding in the field.
Therefore, to effectively use Tamanu in tropical peatland restoration, it is important to carefully match planting sites with the hydrological tolerance of the species. Our findings indicate that even nutrient-rich sites cannot compensate for unsuitable water conditions; prolonged and deep flooding leads to complete mortality despite favorable soil conditions. In contrast, more stable water levels, even at nutrient-poor sites, support long-term survival. Thus, restoration efforts should prioritize areas with consistent and moderate water levels, while avoiding locations prone to prolonged inundation that exceeds the species’ tolerance range. In peatlands with appropriate hydrological conditions, favorable growth can be expected. Therefore, Tamanu can be considered a suitable species for peatland restoration.
These findings underscore the importance of long-term field assessments for understanding species performance under realistic restoration conditions. This study has methodological significance due to its five-year monitoring period, which is considerably longer than previous studies that limited field observations to a maximum of three years and restricted flooding periods to only four weeks [22,60,61]. This extended approach allowed us to observe long-term survival patterns that shorter studies could not detect, particularly the eventual decline in survival rates under prolonged flooding conditions, which became apparent only after several years of continuous exposure.

4.3. Limitations and Future Research Directions

Despite the valuable insights provided by this study, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the monitoring of water levels and rainfall did not fully align with the five-year growth assessment period, resulting in data gaps that limited our ability to precisely characterize the hydrological conditions experienced by the trees throughout the study. This represents a key limitation as it constrains our capacity to quantify the extent to which hydrological stress directly influences tree mortality.
Additionally, the absence of regular soil monitoring before, during, and after flooding events prevented us from assessing changes in soil properties caused by prolonged inundation. Changes such as reductions in oxygen availability, shifts in microbial communities, and alterations in nutrient cycling could represent important indirect mechanisms by which flooding affects plant performance. However, these factors were not explored in our study because of a lack of concurrent soil data.
To address these limitations, future research should incorporate continuous and synchronized environmental monitoring. Specifically, high-resolution water-level and rainfall data should be collected throughout the growth assessment period to allow for statistically meaningful correlations between hydrological variables and survival outcomes. Soil properties should also be measured regularly to better understand how flooding alters physical and chemical environments in ways that affect tree health and longevity.
Future studies should aim to determine the critical threshold values for flooding depth and duration that Tamanu can tolerate. Controlled greenhouse experiments should simulate more ecologically realistic flooding scenarios, extending beyond the commonly tested 2 cm depth and 4-week duration, to reflect the actual conditions encountered in tropical peatland restoration. Finally, comparative studies assessing the flood tolerance of Tamanu relative to that of other native restoration species will provide essential data for developing informed species selection guidelines, enabling practitioners to match species with site-specific hydrological regimes.

5. Conclusions

This study aimed to identify the key environmental factors influencing the establishment of Tamanu in tropical peatlands by monitoring its survival and growth over a five-year period at two contrasting sites, Perigi in South Sumatra and Buntoi, in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Although the nutrient-rich soils at the Perigi site initially supported strong early growth, all trees ultimately perished due to prolonged deep flooding. In contrast, Tamanu, planted at the less fertile but hydrologically stable Buntoi site, exhibited consistent long-term survival rates.
These findings provide compelling evidence that water-level dynamics, rather than soil fertility, are the dominant factors shaping long-term survival in peatland restoration efforts involving Tamanu. This has important practical implications; restoration strategies should move beyond a focus on soil conditions and instead emphasize hydrological suitability, specifically the selection of sites with moderate and stable water levels.
This study highlights the importance of integrating species-specific ecological requirements with long-term hydrological assessments in peatland restoration planning. By offering robust long-term field data under realistic restoration conditions, this study contributes to a growing body of knowledge that can guide evidence-based species selection, minimize planting failure, and enhance the ecological resilience of restored peatland landscapes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.-R.Y.; methodology, A.-R.Y. and E.C.; software, A.-R.Y. and E.C.; validation, A.-R.Y., H.Y., E.C., N.W. and J.C.; investigation, N.W.; resources, E.C.; data curation, A.-R.Y., E.C. and N.W.; writing—original draft preparation, A.-R.Y., E.C. and H.Y.; writing—review and editing, A.-R.Y., H.Y., E.C. and J.C.; visualization, A.-R.Y., E.C. and J.C.; supervision, A.-R.Y. and E.C.; project administration, E.C.; funding acquisition, E.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by the National Institute of Forest Science (Grant number No. FM0800-2021-03-2025).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

This study was conducted at the National Institute of Forest Science of the Republic of Korea. The authors extend their gratitude to Heru Komarudin, Sumantri, Himlal Baral, and Budi Leksono for fieldwork and research support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Forests 16 01740 g001
Figure 1. Location of research sites in Perigi (a) and Buntoi (b), Indonesia.
Figure 1. Location of research sites in Perigi (a) and Buntoi (b), Indonesia.
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Figure 2. Piezometer (a) for measuring water levels and ombrometer (b) for measuring rainfall.
Figure 2. Piezometer (a) for measuring water levels and ombrometer (b) for measuring rainfall.
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Figure 3. Water levels (a) and rainfall (b) in Perigi and Buntoi.
Figure 3. Water levels (a) and rainfall (b) in Perigi and Buntoi.
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Figure 4. Stem volume of Tamanu at the Perigi and Buntoi sites. The vertical bars represent standard errors of the mean (n = 80 in Perigi and 130 in Buntoi). Asterisks indicate significant differences between the Perigi and Buntoi sites.
Figure 4. Stem volume of Tamanu at the Perigi and Buntoi sites. The vertical bars represent standard errors of the mean (n = 80 in Perigi and 130 in Buntoi). Asterisks indicate significant differences between the Perigi and Buntoi sites.
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Table 1. General site characteristics of the research sites.
Table 1. General site characteristics of the research sites.
Site CharacteristicPerigiBuntoi
Area (ha)0.52
Location3°06′14.0″ S, 105°03′46.6″ E2°49′40.6″ S, 114°08′57.5″ E
Average air temperature (℃)25.1 ± 0.632.3 ± 1.7
Average air humidity (%)90.9 ± 1.187.4 ± 3.4
Altitude (m)96–8
Type of peatlandTopogenousTopogenous
Average peat soil depth (cm)128.5 ± 45.9 (2019)61.3 ± 18.9 (2018)
Air temperature and humidity were measured from April 2022 to October 2023. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation.
Table 2. Chemical properties of peat soil at a depth of 0 to 50 cm.
Table 2. Chemical properties of peat soil at a depth of 0 to 50 cm.
Soil PropertiesPerigiBuntoip-Value
pH 4.13   ±   0.17 3.44   ± 0.070.0018 **
Total nitrogen (%) 1.62   ± 0.20 0.21   ± 0.010.0189 *
Available phosphorus (mg kg−1) 36.10   ±   9.89 6.46   ± 1.410.0927
Organic carbon (%) 51.60   ± 0.61 7.23   ± 0.45<0.0001 ***
Cation Exchange Capacity (cmolc kg−1) 80.89   ± 2.92 30.79   ± 1.51<0.0001 ***
Exchangeable
cations
(cmolc kg−1)		Ca2+ 5.85   ± 1.62 0.24   ± 0.060.0737
Mg2+ 3.42   ± 0.95 0.31   ± 0.070.0807
K+ 0.12   ± 0.02 0.23   ± 0.030.0654
Na+ 0.16   ±   0.02 0.22   ± 0.010.0580
Values are presented as mean ± standard error (n = 3 in Perigi and 8 in Buntoi). * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 3. The survival rates of Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Tamanu) in Perigi and Buntoi sites.
Table 3. The survival rates of Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Tamanu) in Perigi and Buntoi sites.
PerigiBuntoi
Period after planting6 months (May 2019) 100   ± 0 *** 79.63   ± 1.83
12 months (December 2019) 100   ± 0 *** 54.80   ± 0.35
24 months (December 2020) 100   ± 0 ** 54.00 ± 0 .20
33 months (September 2021) 71.67   ± 0.53 *** 54.00   ± 0.20
39 months (March 2022) 68.37   ± 0.83 *** 52.80   ± 0.20
47 months (November 2022) 2.53   ± 1.27 52.20   ± 0.20 ***
60 months (December 2023)0 51.80   ± 0.35 ***
Period (P)266.40 ***
Region (R)1715.82 ***
P   × R1272.52 ***
Values are presented as mean ± standard error (n = 3). The asterisks indicate significant differences between the Perigi and Buntoi sites. F values and the asterisks indicate statistical significance in the two-way ANOVA. ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 4. Growth of root collar diameter, height, and H/RCD ratio of Tamanu at the Perigi and Buntoi sites.
Table 4. Growth of root collar diameter, height, and H/RCD ratio of Tamanu at the Perigi and Buntoi sites.
Growth PerformancePeriod After PlantingPerigiBuntoip-Value
Root collar diameter
(mm)		12 months 20.70   ± 1.99 14.50   ± 0.490.0002 ***
24 months 53.19   ± 3.58 39.80   ± 2.230.0027 **
33 months 71.59   ± 4.83 54.20   ± 1.380.0013 **
39 months 80.36   ± 5.74 67.82   ± 1.380.0440 *
60 months- 72.50   ± 5.43-
Height
(cm)		12 months 86.60   ± 6.54 77.74   ± 2.050.1786
24 months 171.68   ± 10.26 173.44   ± 6.690.8865
33 months 188.81   ± 10.55 228.14   ± 4.800.0003 ***
39 months 201.85   ± 9.14 302.65   ± 6.74<0.0001 ***
60 months- 370.00   ± 10.02-
H/RCD ratio12 months 44.97   ± 4.35 57.20   ± 1.370.0059 **
24 months 34.01   ± 2.02 45.84   ± 2.040.0001 ***
33 months 28.42   ± 2.39 44.70   ± 1.13<0.0001 ***
39 months 28.22   ± 1.23 45.73   ± 1.00<0.0001 ***
60 months- 57.25   ± 1.72-
Values are presented as mean ± standard error (n = 80 in Perigi and 130 in Buntoi). * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Yang, A.-R.; Choi, E.; Yang, H.; Cha, J.; Wahyuni, N. Growth Performance of Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) in Relation to Peatland Restoration in South Sumatra and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Forests 2025, 16, 1740. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111740

AMA Style

Yang A-R, Choi E, Yang H, Cha J, Wahyuni N. Growth Performance of Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) in Relation to Peatland Restoration in South Sumatra and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Forests. 2025; 16(11):1740. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111740

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yang, A-Ram, Eunho Choi, Hyunyoung Yang, Jumi Cha, and Novisari Wahyuni. 2025. "Growth Performance of Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) in Relation to Peatland Restoration in South Sumatra and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia" Forests 16, no. 11: 1740. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111740

APA Style

Yang, A.-R., Choi, E., Yang, H., Cha, J., & Wahyuni, N. (2025). Growth Performance of Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) in Relation to Peatland Restoration in South Sumatra and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Forests, 16(11), 1740. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111740

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