A Comprehensive Review of Advances in Magnesium-Based Cementitious Materials: Hydration, Properties, and Applications in Soil Stabilization
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Soil Stabilization Materials
4. Magnesium Oxychloride Cementitious Material
4.1. Hydration Products of MOC
4.2. Performance Characteristics of MOC
4.3. Application in Soil Stabilization of MOC
5. Magnesium Oxysulfate Cementitious Material
5.1. Hydration Products of MOS
5.2. Performance Characteristics of MOS
5.3. Application in Soil Stabilization of MOS
6. Magnesium Phosphate Cementitious Material
6.1. Hydration Products of MPC
6.2. Performance Characteristics of MPC
6.3. Application in Soil Stabilization of MPC
7. Research Status of Other MBCMs in Soil Solidification
8. Environmental Impacts of Soil Curing with MBCMs
9. Issues and Challenges
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inorganic Soil Stabilizers | Cement | Fly ash soil | Hydration products (calcium silicate gel and calcium hydroxide) fill the voids between soil particles and bond them together, thereby enhancing soil strength and stability | When the cement content was 12%, the 28-day UCS of the solidified soil reached 6.32 MPa, representing a 96.9% increase | [26] |
Portland cement and B-nZVI (bentonite-supported nano zero-valent iron) composites | Pb-contaminated soil | Physical encapsulation and chemical adsorption effects of the hydration products generated by the pozzolanic and hydration reactions of cement | When the cement content was 12% and the B-nZVI dosage was 1%; the leaching amount of Pb2+ decreased from 67.6 mg/kg to 6.59 mg/kg after 7 days | [27] | |
Portland cement, granulated blast furnace slag, and sodium sulfate composites | Seaside silt | Formation of a significant amount of ettringite in the soil tightly bond soil particles and enhance soil strength | 28-day UCS exceeded 5 MPa; reduced Cd2+ solubility | [28] | |
Lime | Fine-grained soil | Ratio of soil strength in water-immersion-to-non-immersion conditions reaches ~0.8. Pre-compression value increases from 36 kN/m2 to 82 kN/m2; compression index decreases from 0.85 to 0.36 | [29] | ||
3% raw lime, 3% limestone powder, and 3% WSS (slag-nanosilica stabilizer) | Drill cutting waste soil | Raw lime (CaO) hydrates with water to form Ca(OH)2, which reacts with soil’s acidic components (e.g., clay aluminosilicates) to generate cementitious compounds | 28-day UCS reached 2.13 MPa, liquid limit decreased to 49.1%, plasticity index reduced to 14.8 | [30] | |
Water glass | Sand | A silica gel layer forms on soil particles, which bonds them effectively due to its superior adhesive properties | As the consolidation period extended from 3 days to 14 days, the strength of the sand soil increased from 300~1000 KPa to 4000~5600 KPa | [31] | |
Water glass | Sulfate saline soil | Wave velocity of soil treated with 20°Bé water glass increased by 27.3% while that treated with 40° Bé water glass increased by 50.6% | [32] | ||
Modified water glass | Saline soil | At 20 °C, particles smaller than 10 μm exhibited significant agglomeration, thereby enhancing inter-particle adhesion and consequently increasing the compressive strength of the soil | [33] | ||
Organic Soil Stabilizers | Asphalt | Silt | When mixed with soil, it coats soil particles, forming a continuous and flexible bonding system | Optimal water content for maximum performance was 14.0%, with an expansion rate controlled at 5.0%; California bearing ratio value was 159.15% | [34] |
Asphalt | Sand | Elastic modulus increased 3–7 times under single- and double-impact shear stresses. After 1200 and 1800 cycles of loading, the elastic modulus decreased by 32~61% and 34~63%, respectively | [35] | ||
Epoxy resin | Silty clay | Forming a robust polymer network between soil particles, firmly fixing them within the network | When the ratio of epoxy resin to water was 3:2, the stabilized soil exhibited a high shear strength of 226.4 kPa, with cohesion increasing to 182.1 kPa. | [36] | |
Epoxy resin | Copper-contaminated soil | Porosity of the contaminated soil decreased, with epoxy resin filling the soil pores, thereby altering the soil structure and effectively inhibiting the diffusion of copper ions from the pores | 14-day UCS of the contaminated soil reached 350 kPa | [37] | |
Biological Soil Stabilizers | MICP + fiber mixtures | Sandy soil | Utilizes specific microorganisms, such as Bacillus pasteurii, which induce the precipitation of calcium carbonate through their metabolic activities by utilizing calcium and carbon sources from the surrounding environment. These calcium carbonate precipitates accumulate between soil particles, acting as a binder to cement them together | After multiple MICP treatments, the surface structure of the samples became denser, allowing more calcium carbonate to fill pores and bond soil particles | [38] |
MICP + nano-silica | Clay mineral surfaces | Under 30% moisture content, the UCS of samples treated with MICP combined with 1.5% nano-silica reached 120 kPa, which was 6 times higher than untreated samples and 15 times higher than samples treated only with MICP | [39] | ||
MICP (microbial-induced calcite precipitation) | Sandy soil | At 7 days, the waterproofing rates for 0.315 mm, 0.63 mm, and mixed particle size MICP-treated samples were 2.8, 2.6, and 2.4, respectively; the scouring rates were 70, 50, and 60, respectively | [40] |
MOC Based Curing Agent Composition | Soil Type | Properties | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
MgO 2%, brine concentration 4.67%, brine Dosage 3.2%, Mg/Cl = 35 | Gravel soil | UCS 3.34 MPa | [57] |
Light-burnt magnesium powder dosages 3%, brine dosing 8% | Gravel soil | Compacted material dry density 2.344 g/cm3 | [58] |
Oily sludge/MOC = 1.0 MgO/MgCl2: 2.0~3.0 | Sludge | UCS exceed 11.20 MPa | [59] |
MOC and lime, MgO/MgCl2 molar ratio 10 | Sludge | UCS 1.9 MPa | [60] |
MgO: MgCl2: H2O = 2.45: 1: 14 to 6.3: 1: 14 | Subgrade soil | UCS remains 1.26 MPa immersed in water for 24 h | [61] |
MgO/MgCl2 molar ratio 8.61, MOC content 18%, fly ash content 20.36% | Pavement base and sub-base soil | UCS 2.56 MPa, softening coefficient 0.76 | [62] |
MOC, 1% ammonium dihydrogen phosphate | Waste soil | 5.31 MPa, softening coefficients 0.98–0.95 | [63] |
MOS-Based Curing Agent Composition | Soil Type | Properties | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
TZ18 (MOS–water glass–clinker–silica fume = 3.5: 1.2: 1.0: 1.1) | Muddy soft soil | 7d UCS 879.7 kPa | [5] |
Dosage of humic acid Wh (6%), the initial soil–water content Ww (60%); MMOS dosage Wm (18%); optimal mixing dosages: sodium silicate, silica fume, and cement clinker, 2–5%, 2–6%, and 2–6% | Marine organic silt | Maximum error of predicted UCS is merely 4.38% | [75] |
Citric acid-modified magnesium oxysulfate cement, silica fume, and clinker | Marine soft clay | 5·1·7 phase, gel, dolomite, pyrophyllite, a few CaO and MgO; 7d UCS 435.81 kPa (stabilizing agent 5%); 842.64 kPa (stabilizing agent 20%) | [76] |
Magnesium oxysulfate cement composite curing agent | Mudflat soft clay with high soil moisture and low compression modulus | The smaller the initial soil moisture, the larger the amount of curing agent and the longer the age, the greater initial tangent modulus and shear strength parameters of the solidified soil | [72] |
10% alkaline magnesium sulfate cement, 1% citric acid, 4% water glass, 12% fixed sulfur ash, 8% silica fume | Muddy soft soil | 28d UCS 1400 kPa | [77] |
11% magnesium oxysulfate cement | Loess in Yan’an | 28d UCS 9.4 MPa, softening coefficient 0.947 soaking in water 24 h | [74] |
MPC Based Curing Agent Composition | Soil Type | Properties | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
MPC addition from 30 to 70%; water-soil ratio 0.45 | lead contaminated soil | UCS increased from 0.15 MPa to 0.67 MPa; destructive strain (εf) decreased from 8.4 to 1.8%; lead content 500 mg/kg | [96] |
hydrogen peroxide-based MPC | fluoride-contaminated soil | Optimal adsorption capacity for fluoride reaching 2.21 mg/g; pore volume from 0.112 cm3/g to 0.080 cm3/g; remained stable and intact after 15 days | [97] |
MPC with varying types of activated magnesium oxides; optimal ratio dead burnt magnesia: light burnt magnesia = 3:7 | waste sludge | 28d UCS approximately two to three times greater than that at 14 days; strength retention rate remained 79~96% after being submerged in water for 28d days | [98] |
MKPC mixed with 30% silica fume | municipal sludge | 7d UCS reached 430 kPa, exceeds the minimum requirement for landfill materials (≥350 kPa); moisture content reduced to less than 30%; volumetric shrinkage within 7 days | [99] |
hydration cementation products of phosphate as the binding phase, MgO crystals as the skeletal framework | water purification sludge | 28d UCS of the sludge cured with a 40% MPC dosage reached 1584 kPa | [100] |
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Xu, Q.; Chen, D.; Xiong, J.; He, X.; Dong, S.; Ma, L.; Hai, C.; Zhou, Y.; Sun, Y. A Comprehensive Review of Advances in Magnesium-Based Cementitious Materials: Hydration, Properties, and Applications in Soil Stabilization. Materials 2025, 18, 3806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18163806
Xu Q, Chen D, Xiong J, He X, Dong S, Ma L, Hai C, Zhou Y, Sun Y. A Comprehensive Review of Advances in Magnesium-Based Cementitious Materials: Hydration, Properties, and Applications in Soil Stabilization. Materials. 2025; 18(16):3806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18163806
Chicago/Turabian StyleXu, Qi, Dongliang Chen, Jian Xiong, Xin He, Shengde Dong, Luxiang Ma, Chunxi Hai, Yuan Zhou, and Yanxia Sun. 2025. "A Comprehensive Review of Advances in Magnesium-Based Cementitious Materials: Hydration, Properties, and Applications in Soil Stabilization" Materials 18, no. 16: 3806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18163806
APA StyleXu, Q., Chen, D., Xiong, J., He, X., Dong, S., Ma, L., Hai, C., Zhou, Y., & Sun, Y. (2025). A Comprehensive Review of Advances in Magnesium-Based Cementitious Materials: Hydration, Properties, and Applications in Soil Stabilization. Materials, 18(16), 3806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18163806