Bioactivity and Biocompatibility Properties of Sustainable Wollastonite Bioceramics from Rice Husk Ash/Rice Straw Ash: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biomaterials
2.1. Bioceramics
- First generation: Inert bioceramics
- Second generation: Bioactive and bioresorbable bioceramics
- Third generation: Driving the living tissues generation
2.2. Wollastonite
2.2.1. Low-Temperature Wollastonite (β-CaSiO3)
2.2.2. High-Temperature Wollastonite or Pseudo-Wollastonite (α-CaSiO3)
2.2.3. Wollastonite in the Biomedical Field
3. Description of Agricultural Waste
3.1. Paddy
3.1.1. Rice Husk and Rice Husk Ash
3.1.2. Rice Straw and Rice Straw Ash
4. Materials and Methods of Wollastonite Preparation
4.1. Materials
4.2. Method
4.2.1. Autoclaving
4.2.2. Solid-State Reaction
4.2.3. Melt-Quenching Technique
4.2.4. Sol–Gel
4.2.5. Milling
4.3. Advantages and Limitations of the Processing Methods
5. Bioactivity and Biocompatibility Properties
5.1. Bioactivity Properties
5.1.1. The Apatite Formation Mechanism for the CaO–SiO2 System In Vitro and In Vivo
- First step:
- Second step:
- Third step:
- Fourth step:
5.1.2. SBF
5.1.3. Bioactivity Studies
5.2. Biocompatibility Properties
5.2.1. In Vitro Biocompatibility
5.2.2. MTT Assay
5.2.3. In Vivo Biocompatibility
5.2.4. Biocompatibility Studies
6. General Overview and Future Perspectives
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Composition, wt.% | Bone | Hydroxyapatite | Enamel | Dentin |
---|---|---|---|---|
Calcium, Ca | 34.8 | 39.6 | 36.5 | 35.1 |
Phosphorus, P | 15.2 | 18.5 | 17.7 | 16.9 |
Ca/P molar ratio | 1.71 | 1.67 | 1.63 | 1.61 |
Sodium, Na | 0.9 | - | 0.5 | 0.6 |
Magnesium, Mg | 0.72 | - | 0.44 | 1.23 |
Potassium, K | 0.03 | - | 0.08 | 0.05 |
Carbonate, CO32− | 7.4 | - | 3.5 | 5.6 |
Fluoride, F | 0.03 | - | 0.01 | 0.06 |
Chloride, Cl | 0.13 | - | 0.30 | 0.10 |
Pyrophosphate, P2O74− | 0.07 | 0.022 | 0.10 | |
Total inorganic | 65 | 100 | 97 | 70 |
Total organic | 25 | - | 1.5 | 20 |
Water | 10 | - | 1.5 | 10 |
Ignition products (800 °C) | HA + CaO | HA | Β-TCP + HA | Β-TCP + HA |
Elastic modulus (GPa) | 0.34–13.8 | 10 | 80 | 15 |
Tensile strength (MPa) | 150 | 100 | 10 | 100 |
Description | Value |
---|---|
Color | White |
Luster | Vitreous, Pearly |
Molecular weight, gmol−1 | 116 |
Specific gravity, gcm−3 | 2.86–3.09 |
Refractive index | 1.63 |
pH (10% slurry) | 9.9 |
Solubility in water (g/100 cc) | 0.0095 |
Density (g/cm3) | 2.70–3.00 |
Hardness (Mohs) | 4.5–5 |
Melting point (°C) | 1540 |
Agricultural Waste | Chemical Composition (% w/w) | Ash (%) | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cellulose | Hemicellulose | Lignin | |||
Rice husk | 32.7 | 31.7 | 18.8 | 16.3 | [14,57] |
Rice straw | 41.9 | 25.6 | 0.8 | 16.5 | [58,59] |
Palm oil trunk | 39.9 | 21.2 | 22.6 | 1.9 | [60] |
Palm oil frond | 31.5 | 19.2 | 14.0 | 12.3 | [61] |
Sugarcane bagasse | 30.2 | 56.7 | 13.4 | 1.9 | [62] |
Corn stalks | 42.7 | 23.3 | 17.5 | 9.8 | [59] |
Wheat straw | 32.8 | 38.0 | 8.9 | 1.4 | [63] |
Soy stalks | 34.5 | 24.8 | 19.8 | 10.4 | [62] |
Parameters | Husk | Straw |
---|---|---|
Origin | Rice milling | After harvesting |
Quantity | 20–22% from rice weight | 2–8 ton/ha |
Moisture content, (%) | 10 | 60 (wet weight) 10–12 (dry condition) |
Density, (kgm−3) | 100–150 200–250 (on land) | 75 (loose straw) 100–180 (compact form) |
Carbohydrate components, (%) (average) | Cellulose: 28–36 Hemicellulose: 12 Lignin 9–20 Gross protein: 1.9–3.0 | Cellulose: 24–34 Hemicellulose: 19–29 Lignin: 5–11 Gross protein:2.8–4.4 |
Caloric content, (MJkg−1) | 14–16 (10% moisture content) | 14–16 (14% moisture content) |
Ash, (%) | 13.2–21.0 | 10.4–21.8 |
Silica, (mgg−1) | 18.8–22.3 | 11–15 |
Calcium, (mgg−1) | 0.6–1.3 | 0.9–5.0 |
Phosphorus, (mgg−1) | 0.3–0.7 | 0.61–0.65 |
Raw Material | Method | References |
---|---|---|
Rice husk ash and limestone | Autoclaving | Ridzwan et al. [24] |
Eggshell and rice husk ash | Solid-state reaction | Choudhary et al. [22] |
Rice husk ash and eggshells | Solid-state reaction | Hossain et al. [23] |
corn, sugarcane and eggshells | melt quench technique | Shivani and Kunjir [25] |
Rice husk ash and eggshell | Sol–gel | Palakurthy et al. [70] |
Rice husk ash and eggshell | Autoclaving | Ismail et al. [71] |
Rice straw ash and limestone | Autoclaving | Ismail et al. [72] |
Rice husk ash and eggshell | Sol–gel | Palakurty et al. [73] |
Rice husk ash and eggshell | Sol–gel | Palakurthy et al. [74] |
Rice husk ash and eggshells | Solid state | Sultana et al. [75] |
Rice husk ash and limestone | Autoclaving | Farah ‘Atiqah et al. [76] |
Rice husk ash and limestone | Autoclaving | Roslinda et al. [77] |
Rice straw ash | Sol–gel | Saravanan et al. [78] |
Rice husk ash and limestone | Autoclaving | Ismail et al. [79] |
Rice husk | Autoclaving | Alshatwi et al. [80] |
Rice husk ash and shell of a snail | Milling | Phuttawong et al. [81] |
Rice husk | Autoclaving | Athinarayanan et al. [82] |
Rice straw ash | Sol–gel | Azeena et al. [83] |
Rice husk ash/PCL | Sol–gel | Naghizadeh et al. [84] |
Rice husk ash | Sol–gel | Nayak et al. [85] |
Rice husk ash | Sol–gel | Nayak et al. [86] |
Methods | Advantages | Limitations | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Autoclaving | Very tough, able to bear high pressures and temperatures for long-term processing. | - | [105] |
Solid-state | Easy control of operating conditions | The formation of toxic waste products; not suitable for mass production | [106] |
Melt-quenching |
|
| [107] |
Sol–gel |
|
| [90,108,109] |
Milling | Non-mixed nanomaterial systems can be produced. | Contamination from milling jar | [90,104] |
Ref | Bioactivity | Biocompatibility |
---|---|---|
Ridzwan et al. [24] | + | − |
Choudhary et al. [22] | + | + |
Hossain et al. [23] | + | + |
Shivani and Kunjir [25] | + | − |
Palakurthy et al. [70] | + | − |
Ismail et al. [71] | + | − |
Ismail et al. [72] | + | − |
Palakurty et al. [73] | + | + |
Palakurthy et al. [74] | + | + |
Sultana et al. [75] | + | − |
Farah ‘Atiqah et al. [76] | + | + |
Roslinda et al. [77] | + | + |
Saravanan et al. [78] | − | + |
Ismail et al. [79] | + | − |
Alshatwi et al. [80] | − | + |
Phuttawong et al. [81] | − | − |
Athinarayanan et al. [82] | − | + |
Azeena et al. [83] | − | + |
Naghizadeh et al. [84] | + | − |
Nayak et al. [85] | + | − |
Nayak et al. [86] | + | − |
Ion Concentration | SBF (mM) | Human Blood Plasma (mM) |
---|---|---|
Na+ | 142.0 | 142.0 |
K+ | 5.0 | 5.0 |
Mg2+ | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Ca2+ | 2.6 | 2.5 |
Cl− | 148.8 | 103.0 |
HPO42− | 1.0 | 1.0 |
SO42− | 0.0 | 0.5 |
pH | 7.4 | 7.2–7.4 |
Order | Reagent | Amount (g) | Purity (%) ± 2.0 |
---|---|---|---|
1 | NaCl | 8.035 | 99.0 |
2 | NaHCO3 | 0.355 | 99.0 |
3 | KCl | 0.225 | 99.0 |
4 | K2HPO4·3H2O | 0.231 | 99.0 |
5 | MgCl2·6H2O | 0.311 | 98.0 |
6 | 1.0 M HCl | 35.0 | - |
7 | CaCl2 | 0.292 | 95.0 |
8 | Na2SO4 | 0.072 | 99.0 |
9 | Tris | 6.118 | 99.0 |
10 | 1.0 M HCl | ±10.0 mL | - |
Ref. | Bioactivity Study |
---|---|
Choudhary et al. [22] | The wollastonite scaffold’s XRD patterns showed that the HA process (JCPDS no. 09-0432) precipitated after 3 days of soaking. After 10 days, the apatite had fully covered the surface, indicating that the SBF was responsive. Increasing the soaking period caused apatite to appear as the main phase, with high peaks, and decreased the wollastonite peak. As a result, increasing the soaking time increased apatite deposition. |
Hossain et al. [23] | After soaking in SBF, the peak of the α-wollastonite phases decreased with soaking time for both samples (α-wollastonite ceramic (WC) and α-wollastonite glass-ceramic (WGC)). This is due to the deposition of the hydroxyapatite (HA) process on the surface of WC and WGC. The characterization peak of HA at around 2θ = 32° confirms the formation of the HA process. As a result, the number of HA peaks increases as the soaking time increases from 7 to 28 days. By comparing the number of HA peaks between WGC and WC in the SBF solution, it was determined that WGC is more degradable than WC. As a result, the findings show that the WGC is more capable of forming HA than WC. |
Ridzwan et al. [24] | After 7 days of soaking in SBF, hydroxyapatite (HA) was formed on the β-WI and β-WFD samples’ surfaces. At the end of the soaking period, amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) and calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA) were deposited on both samples’ surfaces. Because of single-phase HA formation after 21 days of soaking, β-WI was more bioactive than β-WFD. |
Shivani and Kunjir [25] | The hydroxyapatite (HA) with ICDD no. 09-432 is observed when soaking in SBF for glasses derived from sugarcane leaf ash, corn husk ash, or eggshell powder. These peaks may be linked to amorphous HA. These peaks vanished later in the soaking phase, suggesting the formation of metastable HA in these glasses. |
Palakurthy et al. [70] | The hydroxyapatite (HA) phase (JCPDS no: 090432) was detected in the XRD analysis, and an increasing amount of HA phase was observed with increasing soaking time. After 14 days of soaking, the wollastonite phase’s diffraction intensity almost completely disappeared, and was replaced by HA as the main phase of wollastonite derived from rice husk ash. These findings show that wollastonite ceramics made from RHA and eggshell have a faster rate of HA growth on their surface, related to their surface microstructure. |
Ismail et al. [71] | All samples showed good bioactivity properties, with a thin layer of glass of amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) on the sample surface. |
Ismail et al. [72] | β-wollastonite samples dried in the incubator at body temperature were more bioactive than freeze-dried samples. Both sets of samples produced the same types of the calcium phosphate group on the surface—namely, amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP), and calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA). |
Palakurthy et al. [73] | The hydroxyapatite (HA) showed peaks characteristic of JCPDS no. 09-0432, suggesting that HA layer growth began immediately on the sample surface after soaking it in SBF solution. As the soaking time increased, the actual wollastonite phase’s diffraction intensity decreased dramatically, and was replaced by the HA phase. Because of the non-homogeneous distribution of HA on the sample’s surface, the wollastonite phase was still detectable after 21 days of soaking. |
Palakurthy et al. [74] | The XRD pattern indicates the representative diffraction peaks of HA in all samples, consistent with JCPDS no. 09-0432. The diffraction strength of the initial wollastonite process was significantly reduced and replaced with HA. Furthermore, the peak intensities of HA increased with increasing exposure time in SBF solution from 7 to 21 days. It can also be shown that the intensity of these diffraction peaks increased from pure wollastonite (W) to silver-doped wollastonite (WAg), suggesting that WAg has more HA mineralization on its surface than W. |
Sultana et al. [75] | As a result of immersion in SBF, the surface of the wollastonite samples come to be covered with newly formed apatite (HA) layers, and a continuous deposit of dense apatite took place over time. In SBF-treated wollastonite, coupled with wollastonite’s peaks, HA’s characteristic peak at 2θ position 31.79°, and this observation are in good agreement with the previous study. |
Farah ′Atiqah et al. [76] | The pseudo-wollastonite peaks at 2θ angles 27, 33, 36.6, 45.7, and 62.9° were decreased from day 1 to day 7. The Ag peak, on the other hand, increased with increasing immersion time. After seven days of immersion, the presence of a significant peak means that the HA peak has begun to form. The HA peak was visible after 14 days of immersion, at a peak angle of 31–33°. |
Roslinda et al. [77] | These findings suggest that the crystallinity of β-wollastonite decreased as the soaking time increased. The amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) layer was discovered on day 3, and almost completely covered the wollastonite’s surface. An ACP structure is characterized by a broad peak centered between 30.0 and 35.0 degrees. The diminishing peak of β-wollastonite at 30.0 degrees verified this situation. The converted, unstable ACP structure began to form hydroxyapatite peaks (ICDD no. 72-1243), and no β-wollastonite or ACP structure peak was observed. The HA peak was discovered after just 21 days of soaking. The XRD pattern demonstrates that β-wollastonite transitions from a crystalline to an amorphous structure during the soaking phase. |
Ismail et al. [79] | When β-wollastonite samples are immersed in SBF solution, apatite forms on their surfaces; after immersing β-wollastonite samples in SBF solution, two types of calcium phosphate groups were formed: amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP)—which is unstable—and calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA). |
Naghizadeh et al. [84] | The SEM micrographs confirmed that all silicate-based bioactive glass-ceramic (R-SBgC) scaffolds induced microsized apatite formation after SBF immersion. After 14 and 21 days, there was no substantial improvement in the pure polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold. |
Nayak et al. [85] | These crystalline phases are not present in specimens after soaking with SBF for three days. After 3 days of soaking, the specimens revealed the presence of an amorphous glassy phase and several crystalline calcium-phosphate-based phases. The specimens contained carbonated hydroxyapatite and hydrated calcium phosphate phases. The presence of these two phases increased from 14 to 21 days. |
Nayak et al. [86] | In BGC900, these crystalline phases were almost non-existent. This is due to crystalline phase dissolution in SBF. The BGC900 included carbonated hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)3(CO3)3(OH)2 and hydrated calcium phosphate (CaHPO4(H2O)2) phases. SBF incubation seems to have less impact on the crystalline peak of glass-ceramics sintered at higher temperatures. When glass-ceramics are sintered at higher temperatures, the crystalline phases can be less soluble in SBF. |
Ref. | Biocompatibility Study |
---|---|
Choudhary et al. [22] | Hemolysis assay on the wollastonite was performed using the ASTM 756-00 and ISO 10 993–51,992 standards; both standards state that a sample is considered non-hemolytic if the hemolytic index range is less than 2%, slightly hemolytic if the range is between 2% and 5%, and hemolytic if the range is more than 5%. The results of the hemolysis assay show that, after 1 day of incubation, wollastonite was found to be hemocompatible at all concentrations (62.5, 125, and 250 g/mL). Nevertheless, after 24 h of incubation, a tendency toward increased RBC destruction was observed in the case of wollastonite. |
Hossain et al. [23] | The author said that the hemolysis assay was carried out in accordance with ASTM F 756-00. Both waste-derived specimens had strong blood compatibility, with hemolysis indexes of less than 2% for 5 mg/mL concentrations. |
Palakurthy et al. [73] | MTT assay of MG63 cells cultured with ceramic samples at different concentrations (50–1000 μg/mL) was used to examine cytocompatibility. A cell culture study showed that NCS (wollastonite from RHA and eggshells) ceramic particles are biocompatible and can proliferate in cells. |
Palakurthy et al. [74] | The MTT assay was used to measure cytocompatibility, and the findings show that the synthesized wollastonite ceramic has no biological cell toxicity. |
Farah ‘Atiqah et al. [76] | In this analysis, using 100% leachate with the medium leached for 1 and 3 days from each scaffold resulted in the death of all cells within 24 h of incubation using the PrestoBlue cell viability assay. A significant observation was that even though the cytotoxicity test showed a low growth rate, suggesting that the composite was toxic at the cellular level, there was a substantial increase in cell proliferation after 72 h. |
Roslinda et al. [77] | β-wollastonite demonstrated biocompatibility with cells in the cell viability test. |
Saravanan et al. [78] | The MTT findings demonstrated that the m-WS particles were nontoxic when revealed to mMSCs at different time points. |
Alshatwi et al. [80] | The biocompatibility of the bSNPs was assessed using an MTT assay. For 24 and 48 h, the hLFCs were exposed to varying concentrations of bSNPs (25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 μg/mL). An in vitro model was used to conduct preliminary studies on the biocompatibility of rice-husk-derived, highly pure bSNPs with hLFCs. The cell viability results showed that the bSNPs did not affect the hLFCs. Lin et al. found that synthetic silica particles with diameters between 15 and 46 nm had important cytotoxic effects at low concentrations (50 μg/mL) [122]. The bSNPs permitted more than 85% cell viability in this study, even at concentrations as high as 400 g/mL, indicating that the bSNPs are biocompatible. |
Athinarayanan et al. [82] | MTT assay was used to determine the biocompatibility of prepared bSNPs. According to the cell viability outcomes, bSNPs have great biocompatibility with hMScs. |
Azeena et al. [83] | The particles’ cytocompatibility was investigated via MTT assay using murine mesenchymal stem cells at various concentrations and time intervals. The substance was found to be cyto-friendly up to a concentration of 0.05 mg/mL. |
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Ismail, H.; Mohamad, H. Bioactivity and Biocompatibility Properties of Sustainable Wollastonite Bioceramics from Rice Husk Ash/Rice Straw Ash: A Review. Materials 2021, 14, 5193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185193
Ismail H, Mohamad H. Bioactivity and Biocompatibility Properties of Sustainable Wollastonite Bioceramics from Rice Husk Ash/Rice Straw Ash: A Review. Materials. 2021; 14(18):5193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185193
Chicago/Turabian StyleIsmail, Hamisah, and Hasmaliza Mohamad. 2021. "Bioactivity and Biocompatibility Properties of Sustainable Wollastonite Bioceramics from Rice Husk Ash/Rice Straw Ash: A Review" Materials 14, no. 18: 5193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185193