Friction Stir Welding and Friction Spot Stir Welding Processes of Polymers—State of the Art
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Common Joining Processes Used for Thermoplastics and Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics
2.1. Adhesive Bonding
2.2. Mechanical Fastening
2.3. Plastics Welding
- Conduction heating: the heat is conducted from an external tool. Typical examples include heated tool welding, plate welding and resistive implant welding;
- Friction welding: the heat is generated by bringing into contact two workpieces under pressure, and a reciprocating motion (vibration) is applied along the interface. Here, the friction induces the increase in temperature of the material close to the components interface. Typical examples are vibration welding, ultrasonic welding;
- Wave induced welding: here, the materials are subjected to external waves (e.g., electromagnetic field). For example, radiofrequency welding involves high frequency (commonly 27.12 MHz) electromagnetic energy that is coupled with the material leading to a conversion of alternating electric energy to heat. Another example is represented by laser welding. Here, the optical coupling between a laser source and the polymeric materials is exploited instead of electric coupling. Examples include infrared welding, induction welding and microwave welding.
- Convective heating: the weld seam is heated by means of a convective source (typically a hot gas) e.g., hot gas welding;
- Heated filler: these processes involve an external (polymeric) filler that is previously heated and pressed against the two materials along the weld seam (e.g., extrusion welding).
3. Friction Stir Welding
- Lower material preheating (ahead the tools shoulder) owing to low thermal diffusivity of polymers;
- Longer cooling time due to lower heat diffusion towards the surrounding material once the tool has passed by a given position;
- In polymers, moisture content may give rise to bubble development, which affects the mechanical behavior of the welds;
- Severe reduction of the load bearing capacity (especially in semi-crystalline polymers) as the softening/melting temperature is approached. This may lead to unsteady material flow conditions;
- Polymeric chains have different lengths; thus, melting conditions may occur at some regions (where shorter chains are localized) leading to uneven material flow;
- Because of the poor thermal diffusivity of the polymers, the material under the tool shoulder is rapidly heated even above the softening/melting point (owing to the high tangential speed at the interface). This would cause the material ejection from the weld seam, with consequent reduction of the strength of the welds. Thus, FSW of polymer materials is preferably performed with a non-rotating tool shoulder;
- The poor thermal diffusivity of polymers also comes with steeper temperature gradients between the stirred and the surrounding regions. This may cause poor adhesion at the interface and differential shrinkage. In addition, the interface between these regions is also affected by the presence of porosities (often generated by the presence of moisture), that act as stress raiser. As a result, the interface between the stirred region and base material is even more critical in polymers than in welds performed in metals.
3.1. Description of the Main Phases
- Plunge phase: During this phase, the rotational tool moves in axial direction and plunged the cold materials. Downward motion of the tool is stopped as soon as the tool shoulder is in contact with the upper surface of the workpiece. In this phase, the axial force and the torque applied to the linear FSW (LFSW) tool reach a peak value and immediately reduce as the steep material heating. At the end of this phase, the LFSW tool pin was fully surrounded/embedded by the material to be stirred. The depth by which the tool shoulder penetrated the upper sheet surface is called plunge depth (TPD) [18].
- Dwell (stabilization) phase: At the end of the plunging phase, the tool is held at a prescribed position leading to material preheating;
- Advancing (welding) phase: The LFSW tool starts to move forward along weld seam. The tool velocity (V) in this phase represents the key aspect that determines the quality of the weld. Depending on the LFSW tool design, V and TPD, the LFSW tool may be tilted to improve the quality of the joint line.
- LFSW tool retract phase: As the tool reached the final position, the tool is rapidly removed from the weld seam [19].
3.2. Material Flow
- Stir zone (SZ): The center of weld seam where the material undergoes to high rate of thermal and mechanical stirring cycles.
- Thermo-mechanical affected zone (TMAZ): A narrow area around SZ where the material experiences low rate of thermal and mechanical stirring cycles.
- Heat affected zone (HAZ): The region surrounding the TMAZ where the material undergoes thermal cycles diffused from SZ.
- Base material (BS): The neat area where the material is not involved into thermal and mechanical cycles.
3.3. Morphology of the Welds and Quality Assessment
- Adhesive failure: detachment of the stirred region from the side walls. This failure mode mainly developed due to low temperature and hydrostatic stress developed during the process;
- Cohesive failure: failure developing from the weld seam due to the presence of defects such as tunneling and/or porosities;
- Stress concentration: due to the material removal from the upper weld surface due to adhesion of the material to the bottom surface of the tool shoulder, which exerted a milling action.
3.4. Effects of Processing Parameters on the Quality of Polymer Joints
3.5. Rotation Speed
3.6. Welding Speed
3.7. Tool Tilt Angle (TTA)
3.8. Tool Plunge Depth (TPD)
3.9. Probe Shape
3.10. Environment
3.11. Process Monitoring
3.12. Special Tooling
3.13. Simulation Modeling
- Base material supposed non-Newtonian fluid with visco-plastic flow behavior;
- Eulerian solution and adaptive meshing;
- Crystal structure changing during LFSW process was ignored.
4. Friction Spot Stir Welding
4.1. Description of the Main Phases
4.2. Material Flow
4.3. Morphology of the Welds and Quality Assessment
- Brittle fracture in the upper sheet (M1);
- Brittle fracture in the lower sheet (M2);
- Separation of the SZ from the lower sheet (M3);
- Separation of the SZ from the upper sheet (M4);
- Shear fracture in the SZ (M5).
- Geometrical: incorrect choice of the plunging depth and/or tool dimension, shape of the tool probe;
- Morphological: formation of porosities, cavities. These depends on the selection of process parameters such as process speed, length of the dwell time, waiting time, load/displacement control, etc.
- Residual stress: thermal shrinkage leading to residual stress and formation of voids and cavities.
4.4. Effect of Process Parameters
4.5. Plunge Rate
4.6. Rotation Speed
- The adoption of different ranges;
- The adoption of different tool dimensions;
- The investigation of different materials, which are characterized by different Tg and softening/melting points;
- The temperature reached during the process.
4.7. Pre-Heating Time
4.8. Dwell Time
4.9. Cooling Time
4.10. Plunge Depth
4.11. Tool Shoulder and Probe Diameter
4.12. Geometry of the Tool Probe
4.13. Effect of Plunging Force
5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
6. Industry 4.0
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Addition of Inserts | Molded in Connections | Flow Joining-Plastic Deformation-Thermoforming |
---|---|---|
Screw, nut, bolts and washers | Molded-in threads | Stacking (Air, Ultrasonic, Vibration, Friction) |
Expansion inserts | Molded in inserts | Hemming |
Self-tapping inserts | Snap-fits | – |
Ultrasonic insert | – | – |
Rivets | – | – |
Advantages | Limits and Disadvantages |
---|---|
Simplicity | Stress concentration |
Permanent or nonpermanent | Increase of weight |
Possibly to be directly embedded into the mold (snap fits) | Costs |
High mechanical behavior even at high temperatures | Visibility from one or both sides of the connector |
Possibility to join materials with great differences | Many processes require pre-drilling |
Advantages | Limits and Disadvantages |
---|---|
Localized heating | Relatively high forces involved |
Low energy requirement | Requires high stiffness of the equipment |
High strength Reduced material distortion and residual Stress | The process can worsen the appearance (especially on correspondence contact surface with the tool shoulder) of the weld seam. |
Possibility to join different materials | High investment costs |
No surface pretreatment is required | – |
Relatively high speed | – |
Easiness of automation | – |
Low process variability | – |
Category | Process Parameter | Brief Description | References |
---|---|---|---|
Processing Speeds | Rotation Speed | Rotational speed of the LFSW tool during the welding process | [13,25,29,36,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49] |
Welding Speed | Forward moving speed of the LFSW tool during the welding process along joint line | ||
Processing Variables | Plunge Depth | Final penetration depth of LFSW tool on top surface of base materials. During the welding process LFSW tool plunge depth remains constant while the tool continues to rotate | [29,36,42,49,50] |
Tilt Angle | Axial tilt of LFSW tool compare surface of base material normal axis. The tool tilt angle has negative amount toward LFSW tool forward moving direction | [28,38,39,40,41,42,45,50,51,52] | |
Geometry | Tool probe profile | Force applied during the dwell phase when load-control is involved in the process | [15,29,42,43,44,45,48,49,51,52] |
Category | Process Parameter | Brief Description | References |
---|---|---|---|
Processing Speeds | Plunge Rate | Speed of the tool during the plunging phase upon reaching the penetration depth | [49,75,78,79,80] |
Rotation speed | Speed of the tool during the plunging and dwell phases | [49,79,81,82,83] | |
Phases Length | Pre-heating time | Period of material pre-heating by slight plunging of the tool over the upper sheet | [49,79,81,82,83] |
Dwell time | time elapsing since the tool has reached the final penetration depth and start of cooling. During this period, the tool plunge is stopped while the tool continues to rotate | [49,75,78,80,82] | |
Cooling time | Period during which the tool is fully stopped (no plunging and rotation take place) | [49,81,82,83] | |
Geometry | Plunge depth | Axial displacement of the tool since the first contact with the upper sheet to the final position. This should be greater than the upper sheet thickness and lower than the sum of the sheet thicknesses | [74,76,77] |
Tool shoulder diameter | – | [74,76,77] | |
Tool probe diameter | – | [76,77,84] | |
Tool probe geometry | – | [76,77,84,85,86] | |
Others | Plunge force | Force applied during the dwell phase when load-control is involved in the process | [74] |
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Lambiase, F.; Derazkola, H.A.; Simchi, A. Friction Stir Welding and Friction Spot Stir Welding Processes of Polymers—State of the Art. Materials 2020, 13, 2291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102291
Lambiase F, Derazkola HA, Simchi A. Friction Stir Welding and Friction Spot Stir Welding Processes of Polymers—State of the Art. Materials. 2020; 13(10):2291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102291
Chicago/Turabian StyleLambiase, Francesco, Hamed Aghajani Derazkola, and Abdolreza Simchi. 2020. "Friction Stir Welding and Friction Spot Stir Welding Processes of Polymers—State of the Art" Materials 13, no. 10: 2291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102291
APA StyleLambiase, F., Derazkola, H. A., & Simchi, A. (2020). Friction Stir Welding and Friction Spot Stir Welding Processes of Polymers—State of the Art. Materials, 13(10), 2291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102291