Unveiling the Interrelations Between Migration, Climate Change, and Energy Transitions in the Context of Socioeconomic Disparities

Abstract

This study examines the critical interplay between migration, climate change, energy transitions, and socioeconomic disparities, highlighting their collective influence on regional resilience and sustainable development. By analyzing the existing literature, the study investigates how migration patterns are shaped by environmental stressors, energy challenges, and economic inequalities, emphasizing the dual role of migration as both a response to and a driver of climate change. Additionally, it explores the complex relationship between energy systems and migration flows, focusing on the impact of energy access, transitions, and sustainability efforts on socioeconomic conditions, particularly in vulnerable regions. The review identifies key gaps in the literature, especially regarding the economic and social implications of these interconnected factors. It also assesses how energy transitions can either mitigate or exacerbate regional disparities and resilience to climate-induced migration. This holistic perspective aims to inform future policy and research on climate migration, energy security, and socioeconomic equity.

1. Introduction

The intersection of migration, climate change, and energy transitions presents a complex set of challenges for global sustainable development. Migration, influenced by both environmental and economic factors, is a dynamic process that shapes regional economies and societies. Climate change, along with the increasing scarcity of resources and energy, is predicted to exacerbate migration patterns, particularly in regions vulnerable to environmental stressors. Consequently, enhancing regional resilience to both climate change and energy challenges is emerging as a critical area of study, carrying significant implications for policy and strategic planning.

Migration, as defined here, refers to the movement of people from one primary place of residence to another, either within a country (internal migration) or across borders (international migration). It reshapes the lives of migrants and influences both the economies and societies of origin and destination regions [1]. Migration is closely linked to broader societal, technological, demographic, and environmental shifts, including historical patterns of colonialism spanning centuries [2]. These long-standing migration flows have shaped global connections, with contemporary migration further influenced by demographic transitions. In low-fertility regions, both internal and international migrants are gradually reshaping population structures [3]. Beyond increasing population size, migration also affects demographic composition, such as age distribution and dependency ratios.

Migration refers to the relocation of individuals or households, whether temporarily (such as seasonal or circular migration) or permanently. It also includes involuntary, often short-term displacement due to unexpected events like extreme weather. Notably, in the context of climate change, migration exists on a spectrum between voluntary and forced movement, with overlapping and fluid categories. In recent years, migration has increasingly been recognized as a legitimate and potentially effective adaptation strategy to climate change [4]. Black et al. [5] emphasize that migration should be understood as part of a broader risk landscape and assessed alongside other mobility patterns driven by economic and social opportunities.

Migration, within the framework of the new mobilities paradigm, is a widespread social norm globally [6]. It plays a crucial role in sustaining the global economy and serves as a key component of livelihood diversification strategies [7,8,9]. Additionally, migration functions as a response mechanism to various external pressures and is widely recognized as an essential driver of development [9,10,11]. On an individual level, migration facilitates life transitions such as family formation and skill development, helping people and their families achieve their aspirations [12].

As mentioned above, migration occurs both internationally and internally, with international migrants consistently making up around 2.7–3.3% of the global population since 1960 [13]. Internal migration is harder to quantify due to varying measurement methods [14], but in 2005, an estimated 760 million people—roughly 12% of the global population—lived outside their region of birth [15]. Migration patterns vary widely; for example, nearly 20% of the U.S. population moved internally between 2005 and 2010, while Spain had a low internal migration rate (3%) but a high net international migration rate (48 per 1000 inhabitants). Additionally, events like the COVID-19 pandemic or war, similar to climate change [16,17,18,19,20,21,22], add complexity to migration trends, often triggering surges before lockdowns [23,24,25,26].

Szaboova et al. [26] assessed the circumstances under which migration constitutes a successful adaptation to climate change by examining the entire migration system as a social phenomenon. Like all adaptation actions, migration’s effectiveness depends on achieving sustainable outcomes for all, thereby avoiding maladaptive responses [27,28]. Sustainable adaptation in migration requires the simultaneous promotion of social equity and environmental integrity [29]. To explore the inter-temporal and social implications of migration, the authors analyze three key scenarios: intra-household dynamics in places of origin, experiences in destinations, and the connections between origin and destination through remittances. They identify three evaluation criteria—well-being, equity, and sustainability—that serve as entry points for recognizing trade-offs that could undermine migration as an adaptation strategy. For migration to be considered a successful adaptation, positive outcomes in well-being, equity, and sustainability must be observed across individuals who migrate, the communities that receive them, and the regions they leave behind, including across different temporal scales.

Climate change, migration, and energy transitions are increasingly recognized as interconnected global challenges that shape socioeconomic landscapes and regional resilience. Environmental stressors, such as rising temperatures, resource depletion, and extreme weather events, contribute to migration patterns, while energy transitions influence economic stability and development opportunities in affected regions [30]. Despite growing research on these topics, a comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact remains limited, particularly concerning their socioeconomic implications and policy responses. This study aims to bridge this gap by systematically reviewing existing literature on the interconnections between migration, climate change, energy transitions, and socioeconomic disparities. Specifically, it contributes to the field in three key ways: (1) examining migration not only as a consequence of climate change and energy challenges but also as a driver of these phenomena; (2) analyzing the role of energy systems in shaping migration patterns, particularly through access, sustainability transitions, and economic conditions; and (3) identifying critical gaps in the literature to inform future research and policy on climate migration, energy security, and socioeconomic equity.

By integrating insights from multidisciplinary studies, this research provides a holistic perspective on how environmental and energy-related stressors influence human mobility and regional sustainability. The findings contribute to ongoing discussions on climate resilience, just energy transitions, and equitable development strategies [30].

This literature review aims to explore the interconnected dynamics between migration, climate change, and energy transitions, with a focus on regional resilience. The review seeks to analyze the role of migration in shaping energy demand and regional economies, as well as the impact of climate change on migration flows and the broader implications for sustainable development. Through this review, the paper examines existing research, identifies key gaps in the literature, and proposes pathways for further exploration to foster integrated solutions to these challenges.

Objectives:

• To explore the interconnections between migration, climate change, and energy transitions, particularly how migration influenced by environmental and energy factors impacts regional resilience.
• To identify the key challenges that regions face in adapting to these interconnected pressures and how energy transitions can support or hinder regional economic resilience.
• To investigate the gaps in existing literature concerning the economic dimensions of migration, climate change, and energy, particularly the role of migration in shaping energy systems and regional economic stability.

Climate change poses a significant threat to human security by (a) disrupting livelihoods, cultural traditions, and human rights; (b) accelerating migration patterns; and (c) indirectly contributing to armed conflicts [31]. Resource scarcity, particularly regarding water due to prolonged droughts, has been identified as a factor that can intensify tensions and conflicts, either directly or indirectly [32,33]. However, the extent to which climate change contributes to conflicts compared to other socio-political and economic factors remains a topic of debate. Projected climate shifts are expected to further heighten regional energy demands and negatively impact agricultural productivity, leading to increased food insecurity, rising costs, and worsening malnutrition. These consequences may exacerbate existing social inequalities and fuel political instability, potentially escalating into conflicts and humanitarian crises [34].

Additionally, a combination of economic, political, demographic, and social pressures—alongside environmental stressors such as sea level rise, droughts, extreme heatwaves, and the spread of vector-borne diseases—can influence migration trends, with climate change acting as a key driver [9,35,36,37,38]. The scope and magnitude of climate-induced displacement could become one of the most pressing human rights challenges of the modern era [31].

Thus, migration is increasingly recognized as both a cause and consequence of climate change, with many scholars highlighting its potential to drive significant shifts in regional economies. As noted by Crescenzi, Rodríguez-Pose, and Storper [39], migration contributes not only to the redistribution of labor but also to changes in energy demand and the strain placed on regional resources. Studies by Sirkeci and Cohen [40] have further stressed the role of migration in the restructuring of urban areas, particularly in the face of climate-related disruptions. In parallel, Folke [41] discusses the concept of resilience in the context of climate change, noting that regions facing significant migration flows often struggle to maintain economic stability without integrated policies addressing both climate resilience and energy sustainability.

Furthermore, energy transitions in response to climate change can alter regional dynamics by influencing migration patterns. Research by Berkes et al. [42] illustrates the interconnectedness between resource management, migration, and resilience, emphasizing the need for systems that account for both environmental and socioeconomic pressures. While much of the current literature has focused on the social and environmental aspects of migration, the economic implications, particularly in terms of energy and regional resilience, remain underexplored. This gap in the research provides a significant opportunity for deeper analysis of how migration interacts with energy systems and how regions can better adapt to these compounded challenges.

In light of this, the present review seeks to synthesize existing research on migration, climate change, and energy transitions while exploring the economic dimensions of these interconnected phenomena. This paper contributes to the broader understanding of how regions can navigate the complexities of migration, climate adaptation, and energy sustainability in the pursuit of resilience and long-term development.

2. Research Design

The study includes a systematic literature review (SLR) based on the analysis of texts selected from databases of scientific publications—Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus. The databases were selected due to their main characteristics:

• A broad scope of international bibliography with worldwide recognition;
• Multidisciplinarity;
• A position among the leading databases of scientific texts used, among others, in bibliometric analyses but also for other purposes [43];
• Considered the most reliable sources of bibliographic data [44], having a number of requirements that determine the qualification of a text for inclusion in the database, a large number of indexed materials (with a dominant position of texts published in English), and mutual competition [45], which affects, among other things, their constant improvement and adaptation to users.

The advantages of conducting a systematic review include transparency, the possibility of replication and updating, and the avoidance of bias [46]. SLRs synthesize information following explicit methodology to answer research questions [47]. They are used to identify gaps in the literature, emerging inconsistencies, and research trends.

There was no time limit applied to the selection of scientific materials, which resulted in the acquisition of texts indexed by 11 January 2025. The constraints given were related to the four groups of keywords shown in

Table 1. Keywords used in the selection process of scientific texts. Source: own elaboration.

AND→	AND→	AND→
OR↓	OR↓	OR↓	OR↓
‘migration’	‘climate change’	‘energy transitions’	‘economic resilience’
‘migration flows’	‘environmental change’	‘energy security’	‘sustainable development’
‘resettlement’	‘environmental stressors’		‘economic stability’
			‘economic adaptability’

and connected by AND/OR operators. The arrows within the table below refer to the relationships between columns (→) and rows (↓). The selection process allowed us to extract 19 texts from the WoS database and 6 texts from the Scopus database.

The analysis of the selected texts was undertaken separately for each database. The obtained files, in a tab-delimited and csv format, were analyzed using the VOSviewer program (version: 1.60.20), while text data from abstracts and titles were additionally analyzed using the WordArt program (an online word cloud generator). Quantitative data regarding both the selection process and the analysis performed are presented in

Table 2. Quantitative data related to the selection process and analysis performed. Source: own elaboration.

Categories	WoS	Scopus
Number of keywords	NW = 12	NW = 12
Number of operators	NO = 2	NO = 2
Number of indexed materials	NWoS > 171 million	NScopus > 84 million
Number of selected materials	NWoS1 = 19	NScopus1 = 6
Number of materials subjected to bibliographic and text analysis	NWoS2 = 19	NScopus2 = 6
Total materials excluding duplicates (repeated in both databases) Number of materials subjected to content analysis	NWoS & Scopus = 23

and supplemented for visualization purposes in Figure 1.

For both databases, networks were first developed based on bibliographic data (type of analysis: co-authorship and co-occurrence; full counting method), and then maps based on text data obtained from titles and abstracts (full counting method) were created. These networks and maps had an impact on the number of generated clusters, their components, and the specified nodes and links shown in the next part of the article. The analysis enabled the identification of a group of important terms that were used to develop the discussion and to draw conclusions from the research.

3. Results

3.1. Web of Science—Bibliographic Data

The analyzed topics appeared in texts published in the period from 2009 to 2024 (Figure 2). Half of the texts were available as open access. Among the indexed materials were articles published in journals (15 documents/79%), book chapters (4 documents/21%), proceeding papers, and review articles (2 documents each/10%). Most of the texts were published in English (95%) and only one in Chinese (5%).

The analyzed texts were geographically categorized into 16 regions, as depicted in Figure 3. This distribution spans four continents, with a notable concentration in Europe.

In the categorization of research areas, the majority of the analyzed texts pertain to environmental science (10 documents/53%) and science and technology topics (6 documents/31%). Only two documents (10%) address economic issues, and an additional two focus on energy and fuels (details are presented in Figure 4). The analyzed texts reference fourteen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as depicted in Figure 5, with the most frequent citations pertaining to goal no. 13 Climate Action and goal no. 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities.

The analysis using the VOSviewer program enabled the generation of maps of co-authorship links, indicating two groups of authors (10 people) and organizations (5 entities) involved in mutual scientific cooperation, as shown in Figure 6a,b, respectively. The Figure 6 shows, among other things, that for each text by a given author, out of the 63 authors meeting the required threshold, only 10 of them collaborated with each other within the framework of the researched issue. Similarly, in the case of cooperation between the organizations represented by the authors of the texts, out of 37 organizations meeting the required threshold, only 5 of them collaborated.

Among the most frequently cited works, the study by Hargreaves et al. [48] stands out with 395 citations.

Table 3. Authors—citations (co-authorship). Source: own study.

Authors	Documents	Citations
Hargreaves T., Hielscher S., Seyfang G., Smith A.	1	395
Greene M.	1	44
Nwulu N., Ogbolumani O.A.	1	29
Chibarabada T.P., Chivenge P.P., Liphadzi S., Mabaya G., Abhaudhi T., Modi A.T., Mpandeli S., Naidoo D., Nhamo L., Senzanje A.	1	22
Biemans H., Bunch M.J., Dhaubanjar S., Hipel K.W., Immerzeel W.W., Ludwig F., Lutz A.F., Masih A., Matthew R., Orbinski J., Smolenaars W.J., Talukder B., Vanloon G.W.	1	11
Celico F., Kalvani S.R.	1	10
Li Y.H., Ling Z., Song Y.C., Wang J., Wang Y.L., Wei R.P., Yang L., Yang M.J., Zhao J.F.	1	9
Levy J.K.	1	5
Brauch H.G., Carlier J.-Y., Crepeau F., Oswald Spring U., Purkey A.	1	4
Cheng J.H., Guo H.X., Li W., Li Y.L., Zhang H.D., Zuo Z.L.	1	1

enumerates the authors of these selected works, while

Table 4. Represented organizations—citations (co-authorship). Source: own study.

Organizations	Documents	Citations
univ e anglia, univsussex	1	395
nuigalway	1	44
univjohannesburg	1	29
univkwazulu natal, univvenda, univzimbabwe, water res, commiss south africa	1	22
conflict anal grp, intctr integrated mt dev, queens univ, ucirvine univutrecht, ural fed univ, wageningenenvironm res, wageningenuniv, waterloo univ, yorkuniv	1	11
univparma	1	10
china ship design & res ctr Co., Ltd., dalianunivtechnol, xingangshipbldg heavy ind co	1	9
virginia commonwealth univ	1	5
catholic univlouvain, mcgilluniv, natl autonomous univmexicounam, peace res &europeansecur studies afes press, stpaulsunivcoll	1	4
chengduunivtechnol, china univgeosci, natlnatscifdn china	1	1

categorizes them according to their respective organizations.

3.2. Web of Science—Text Data

Based on the analysis of titles and abstracts from the selected publications, a list of 1157 terms was compiled. Of these, 36 terms met the predefined criterion of appearing at least five times. Network visualization (Figure 7a) presents four thematic clusters of terms: red, containing the most terms—energy cluster, blue—migration cluster, yellow—injustice cluster, and green—geochemistry cluster. Overlay visualization (Figure 7b) shows the same terms in a timeline, indicating, among other things, that terms such as ‘sustainable development’, ‘health’, and ‘sustainable transition’ are located relatively early on the timeline, while terms such as ‘SDGs’ (Sustainable Development Goals), ‘injustice’, ‘geochemistry’, ‘China’, and ‘NSFC’ (Natural Science Foundation of China) are among the newest terms. The third map—density visualization (Figure 7c)—presents the above terms considering the intensification of their exploration by researchers in relevant fields. The map indicates, among other things, that the greatest research attention is focused on the terms ‘migration’, ‘sustainable development’, ‘health’, ‘food’, and ‘energy’. On the other hand, the least-researched issues among those appearing are those related to the terms ‘China’, ‘NSFC’, ‘ecosystem’, and ‘citizen’.

From the resulting network visualization, three distinct clusters of key terms were identified, pertaining to energy (Figure 8a–e), sustainable development (Figure 9a–h), and migration (Figure 10a–c). These clusters, along with their interconnections, are detailed in the accompanying figures. The maps below clearly outline the popularity of terms such as ‘energy’, ‘energy security’, ‘water’, ‘sustainability’, ‘sustainable development’, and ‘environment’. The terms displayed below have the highest number of interconnections with other terms. The color gradient of each term indicates the publication year of the text in which it appears; lighter hues correspond to more recent publications. For instance, the term ‘energy’ is associated with recent terms such as ‘SDGs’, ‘China’, ‘NSFC’, and ‘geochemistry’.

In contrast to the previously mentioned terms co-occurring with other terms, Figure 11a,b shows the frequency of words appearing in the titles and abstracts of the selected texts. The larger the font, the more often a given word appears. After excluding common words used in the text selection, the remaining prominent words are ‘security’, ‘water’, ‘challenge’, ‘geochemistry’, ‘food’, ‘nexus’ (water–energy–food nexus), ‘health’, ‘European’, ‘development’, and ‘transition’. The deliberate selection of specific terms serves multiple purposes: guiding the research focus, encouraging engagement with the published material, enhancing comprehension, and shaping readers’ perceptions. Notably, while ’energy’ is the most frequently cited term in abstracts, it does not dominate the titles; instead, ’sustainability’ prevails, highlighting a nuanced emphasis within the discourse.

3.3. Scopus—Bibliographic Data

The analyzed topics are addressed in publications released between 2015 and 2024. (see Figure 12). The indexed materials include a selection of articles (3 documents/50%), a book chapter, a conference paper, and a review (1 documents each/17% each), all published in English.

The analyzed texts can be geographically categorized into nine countries (Figure 13). Notably, interest in the examined topic spans three continents, with the highest concentration observed in Asia.

When categorized by research areas, the largest proportion of texts pertains to environmental sciences and engineering topics (4 documents each/67%). Half of the texts are thematically related to energy (Figure 14).

The analysis performed using VOSviewer software enabled the development of co-authorship network maps, highlighting ten authors, five organizations, and four countries (China, Japan, Vietnam, and Iran) actively involved in scientific collaboration, as presented in Figure 15a–c. Of the 63 authors meeting the criteria, 10 collaborated and represented five different organizations. The work by Taghizadeh-Hesary et al. [49], one of the studies from collaborating authors, ranks as the most cited, with 94 citations.

Table 5. Authors—citations (co-authorship).

Authors	Documents	Citations
Rasoulinezhad E., Shahbaz M., Taghizadeh-Hesary F., Vinh Vo X.	1	94
Nwulu N.I., Ogbolumani O.A.	1	31
Chibarabada T.P., Chivenge P.P., Liphadzi S., Mabaya G., Mabhaudhi T., Modi A.T., Mpandeli S., Naidoo D., Nhamo L., Senzanje A.	1	27
Hassan M., Khan M.I., Mukhtar H., Mumtaz M.W.	1	8
Tomkiewicz M.	1	2

Source: own study.

lists the authors of the selected texts referenced in the analysis, while

Table 6. Represented organizations—citations (co-authorship).

Organizations	Documents	Citations
Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran; Institute of Business Research and CFGV, University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City; Institute of Business Research, University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City; School of Management and Economics Beijing Institute of Technology; Social Science Research Institute, Tokai University	1	94
Center for Cyber-Physical Food, Energy and Water Systems (CCP-FEWS), University of Johannesburg	1	31
Centre for Transformative Agricultural and Food Systems, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Kwazulu-Natal; School of Engineering, University of Kwazulu-Natal; School of Environmental Sciences, University of Venda; Water Research Commission of South Africa; Waternet, University of Zimbabwe	1	27
Department of Chemistry, University of Gujrat; Department of Environmental Science, International Islamic University; Green Environ Sol (private) Limited; Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government Collage University	1	8
Department of Physics, Brooklyn College of CUNY; Ph.D. Program in Physics and Ph.D. Program in Chemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York	1	2

Source: own study.

organizes them according to their affiliated organizations. Their division by represented countries is presented in

Table 7. Represented countries—citations (co-authorship).

Country	Documents	Citations
China	1	94
Iran	1	94
Japan	1	94
Vietnam	1	94
South Africa	2	58
Zimbabwe	1	27
Pakistan	1	8
United States	1	2
Russian Federation	1	0

Source: own study.

.

3.4. Scopus–Text Data

By analyzing the titles and abstracts, a list of 324 terms was compiled. Among these, 25 terms met the predefined criterion of occurring at least three times. Within the framework of Figure 16a, network visualization indicates the existence of four thematic clusters of terms: red—climate change cluster, blue—energy security cluster, yellow—energy cluster, and green—SDGs cluster. Next, visualization (Figure 16b) shows that terms such as ‘energy transition’ and ‘sustainability’, among others, are the oldest terms, while terms such as ‘energy’, ‘Pakistan’, and environmental security’ are the newest terms. The density visualization map (Figure 16c) indicates that the terms ‘energy’ and ‘climate change’ receive the highest research focus, whereas terms such as ‘Sustainable Development Goals’, ‘economic development’, and ‘energy security’ are comparatively less explored.

The generated connection maps reveal three distinct groups of key terms associated with energy (Figure 17a–d), sustainable development (Figure 18a–e), and migration (Figure 19a–d), along with their detailed linkages to other terms. The maps clearly highlight the prominence of terms such as ‘energy’, ‘energy security’, ‘climate change’, and ‘migration’. Recent research has introduced terms such as ‘energy security’ and ‘food security’ as emerging areas of focus. Conversely, ‘economic development’, though less prevalent in terms of interconnections, has also gained attention in recent studies.

Figure 20a,b presents the most frequently appearing words in the titles and abstracts of the selected texts from the Scopus database. In addition to the words used in the text selection process, the following words appear most frequently: ‘transition’, ‘security’, ‘climate’, ‘develop’, ‘nexus’, and ‘physics’. Due to the shorter length of titles compared to abstracts, the number of unique terms in titles is significantly lower. Nonetheless, the terms ’energy’ and ’security’ prominently appear in both titles and abstracts.

3.5. Interconnections Between Migration, Climate Change, and Energy Transitions

Twenty-two selected articles were analyzed regarding interconnections between migration, climate change, and energy transitions. Observations regarding groups of co-occurring approaches are presented in

Table 8. Energy, migration, and climate change approaches presented in the analyzed articles (chronological order).

Researchers	Energy Approach	Migration Approach	Climate Change Approach	Scope
Levy [50]	Energy security	-	Environmental safety	-
French and Meyer [51]	Energy policy is a topic discussed during roundtables, conferences, and workshops on sustainable development	Migration as a global challenge	Climate change as a global challenge	Great Britain, Switzerland
Hargreaves et al. [48]	Community energy projects	-	-	Great Britain
Negri [52]	The relationship between human health in the discourse on sustainable development and energy systems (a fundamental component of development)	The relationship between human health in the discourse on sustainable development and migration (a fundamental component of development)	The relationship between human health in the discourse on sustainable development and the environment (a fundamental component of development)	-
Tomkiewicz [53]	Stabilizing the climate requires an energy transformation, moving away from traditional business models toward the diversified use of zero-emission energy sources.	Sustainable development is necessary in the lives of people until they develop technology to migrate to other planets.	Anthropogenic climate change resulting mainly from the use of fossil fuels	-
Brauch and Oswald Spring [54]	Energy security debates	-	Effects of climate change	-
Greene [55]	A human-centered and context-sensitive approach to energy transition research	-	-	-
Masih [56]	The role of the Thar coalfield in increasing energy and combating global environmental change	-	The impact of mining activities on environmental degradation	Pakistan
Singh [57]	Energy supply as a major problem in urban systems	Problems in urban systems are deepened by migration.	Problems in urban systems are exacerbated by climate change.	-
Wei et al. [58]	Gas hydrates as a potential alternative energy sources	- (The variation in effective thermal conductivity described is attributed as a solution to migration.)	Potential impact of natural gas hydrates on global climate	-
Carlier et al. [59]	Energy security as a main area of state policy	European migration crisis	-	Europe
Hassan et al. [60]	The role of energy security and risks associated with the construction and operation phases of energy projects	The implementation of energy projects affects, among others, the displacement of species and disruptions in migration corridors.	Climate change is reshaping the links between energy and environmental security.	Pakistan
Mabhaudhi et al. [61]	Energy availability, along with food production and water supply, constitute major socioeconomic and environmental problems.	Migration as one of the challenges of humanity that require transformational approaches (nexus planning)	Current challenges facing humankind, as shown in the SDGs	South Africa
Smolenaars et al. [62]	Energy security (at least doubling energy security requirements by 2080)	Migration (related, among other things, to concentration in urban areas) as a factor driving growing energy security requirements	The impact of climate change on the profitability of energy production	Indus Basin
Taghizadeh-Hesary et al. [49]	Positive impact of energy transition on energy consumption in high- and upper-middle-income Asian countries	- (Energy transformation—migration from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources)	Energy transformation as the main solution to climate change	Asian countries
Talukder et al. [63]	Linking energy security to melting glaciers and planetary health issues.	Linking migration to melting glaciers and planetary health issues	Climate change has accelerated the melting of Himalayan glaciers.	Himalayas
Ogbolumani and Nwulu [64]	FEW-N system used to solve the problem of allocating natural resources for energy security purposes	The growing demand for water–energy–food resources is caused by migration.	The growing demand for water–energy–food resources is caused by climate change.	South Africa
Koliesnik et al. [65]	Targeted attacks on critical infrastructure increase demand for certain professions, including those related to ensuring energy security. This has an impact on mass layoffs within other professions.	Migration from the point of view of an unsatisfactory economic situation	Climatic factors are among the most important causes of crime in society.	Ukraine
Rezaei Kalvani and Celico [66]	The statement that most of the research on the water–energy–food nexus focuses on the topic of energy production	Finding a lack of publications discussing the issues of human migration due to climate change in the water–energy–food nexus	The statement that the climate as a resource is not a popular trend in research within the water–energy–food nexus	European countries
Zuo et al. [67]	Factors influencing energy-related CO2 emissions in the mining industry	-	-	China
Akrofi et al. [68]	Viewing energy justice through the lens of distributive, procedural, discretionary, and corrective injustices in renewable energy projects	Labor migration is one of the consequences of injustices in renewable energy projects. For example, the exploitation and use of natural resources for clean energy projects leads to increased pressure on these resources and, in some cases, to the dispossession and displacement of communities in order to implement the investment. Such actions can result in the loss of land by affected communities, which in turn stimulates labor migration from these areas.	The global transformation toward renewable energy sources opens significant opportunities for promoting sustainable development, including mitigating climate change.	Africa
Sambuu [69]	Ongoing climate change impacts energy security	Climate changes are affecting the migration of people	Climatic features of Tuva	Russia

Source: own study.

.

4. Discussion

The conducted research allowed us to specify the terms important for the research topic:

• Terms popular in the past among researchers: ‘sustainable development’, ‘health’, ‘sustainable transition’, ‘energy transition’, and ‘sustainability’;
• Terms currently popular among researchers: ‘SDGs’, ‘injustice’, ‘geochemistry’, ‘China’, ‘NSFC’, ‘energy’, ‘Pakistan’, and ‘environmental security’;
• Terms most explored: ‘migration’, ‘sustainable development’, ‘health’, ‘food’, ‘energy’, and ‘climate change’;
• Terms with a low level of exploration: ‘China’, ‘NSFC’, ‘ecosystem’, ‘citizen’, ‘sustainable development goals’, ‘economic development’, and ‘energy security’;
• Terms with many connections to other terms: ‘energy’, ‘energy security’, ‘water’, ‘sustainability’, ‘sustainable development’, ‘environment’, ‘climate change’, and ‘migration’;
• Terms most frequently appearing in titles and abstracts: ‘security’, ‘water’, ‘challenge’, ‘geochemistry’, ‘food’, ‘nexus’, ‘health’, European’, ‘development’, ‘transition’, ‘climate’, and ‘physics’.

4.1. Terms: ‘Energy’, ‘Energy Transition’, ‘Energy Security’, and ‘Water’

4.1.1. Migration in the Context of Energy, Energy Transition, Energy Security, and Water

Migration, as a response to environmental and socioeconomic factors, plays a critical role in addressing challenges related to energy, energy transitions, energy security, and water resources. The growing intersection of migration with these issues emphasizes the need for a broader understanding of how migration can influence and be influenced by sustainable energy development, energy access, and water management.

Slow-onset climate events, such as rising sea levels, have long-term, gradual impacts on migration patterns, often resulting in the displacement of entire communities over an extended period. These events force individuals and communities to move due to the slow degradation of livable conditions, including the salinization of freshwater sources, agricultural loss, and the inundation of low-lying areas [70]. In contrast, sudden-onset events, like floods or hurricanes, often lead to immediate displacement but may be temporary depending on the recovery efforts [23]. While floods can result in abrupt, short-term migration flows, slow-onset events tend to push people into more permanent or long-term migration, creating shifts in population distribution over time. These patterns are critical for understanding how climate change reshapes migration processes, especially in coastal and island regions [25].

Renewable energy projects can significantly influence migration patterns by creating new job opportunities, reducing the need for urban migration, and enhancing community resilience to climate impacts. These projects play an essential role in both adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change, which often drive migration from vulnerable areas. In regions heavily dependent on fossil fuels, the transition to renewable energy can trigger economic shifts that may result in labor migration, as workers in these areas seek new opportunities in green industries. However, renewable energy projects must strike a balance between economic benefits and social impacts to ensure that migration patterns are not adversely affected by rapid transitions. As such, these projects help create stable, local energy sources, improve living conditions, and reduce migration to urban centers by providing employment in rural or energy-deprived regions.

However, an often-overlooked factor in migration dynamics is energy poverty, which refers to a lack of access to reliable and affordable energy. Energy poverty directly affects livelihoods, education, and healthcare, often forcing people to migrate in search of better living conditions. Addressing energy poverty through renewable energy projects can reduce forced migration by improving economic stability in vulnerable communities.

In Southeast Asia, for example, climate change impacts such as droughts and floods have forced many agricultural workers to seek employment through cross-border labor migration corridors. Many workers from Cambodia and Myanmar migrate to Thailand through the Border Employment Scheme or irregular channels to work on small-scale sugarcane plantations. However, they often face exploitative working conditions, lack social protections, and remain vulnerable to climate hazards such as heatwaves and floods [71].

While labor migration can serve as a coping strategy, it has its limitations. Without access to energy resources, economic mobility remains constrained. Many migrants move to urban areas or foreign countries because their home regions lack electricity for businesses, irrigation systems, or modern education. Without proper labor protections, migration can become maladaptive, increasing vulnerabilities rather than reducing them [72]. Renewable energy investments can help mitigate these challenges by providing stable employment opportunities, improving agricultural productivity, and reducing migration pressures.

Table 9. The impact of renewable energy projects on migration patterns.

Impact Area	Details	Reference
Job creation in renewable energy	Renewable energy projects generate employment in the installation, maintenance, and operation of energy infrastructure.	ILO [74]; IEA. International Energy Agency [75]
Reducing climate-induced migration	Access to clean energy in remote areas reduces economic pressure to migrate by improving local livelihoods.	Birkmann et al. [73]; IOM [71]
Urban migration prevention	Renewable energy projects improve living conditions in rural areas, reducing migration to urban centers.	IOM [71]
Labor migration due to economic shifts	Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewables may lead to labor migration as workers seek new employment opportunities.	ILO [74]; ILO [76]
Energy poverty and migration	A lack of access to energy leads to economic stagnation, forcing people to migrate for better opportunities.	ILO [76]; Black et al. [77]
Adaptation through technology transfer	Migration facilitates the exchange of skills and technologies that enhance resilience to climate change.	Mason et al. [78]

Source: own study.

outlines the diverse ways renewable energy projects influence migration, including how these projects can reduce climate-induced migration by enhancing resilience in vulnerable regions, particularly in relation to energy poverty. Renewable energy infrastructure, such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power stations, can directly mitigate the adverse effects of climate change by improving energy access and sustainability in rural and underserved areas. This, in turn, reduces the necessity for people to migrate from these areas due to climate impacts, such as droughts, floods, or extreme weather events [73].

Additionally, migration itself can serve as an adaptation strategy. As people are forced to migrate due to environmental changes, renewable energy projects can help mitigate climate-induced migration by creating sustainable livelihoods for these displaced populations [71].

Several global initiatives actively engage in climate mobility, supporting the idea that migration is both a response to and a strategy for adapting to climate change.

Table 10. Key climate action projects and their impact on migration.

Project Name	Description	Reference
IOM Diaspora for Climate Action (D4C) Project	Engages diaspora communities in the U.K. from Albania, Bangladesh, Ghana, and Jamaica to contribute to climate action by assisting in the development of climate strategies	IOM [71]
Pacific Australia Labour Mobility (PALM) Scheme	A labor mobility program that allows workers from the Pacific Islands and Timor-Leste to work in Australia, learning sustainable agricultural practices that they can apply upon return	Dun et al. [79]
Kyrgyz Diaspora Climate Action Project	Focuses on the Kyrgyz diaspora’s potential to contribute financially and technically to climate resilience in Kyrgyzstan, with a focus on developing NDCs and NAPs	IOM [71]
MOVE_GREEN	A co-development project between Andalusia (Spain) and Morocco focused on innovation and employment in the green economy, aimed at fostering sustainable migration solutions	Migration Partnership Facility [80]
Migration for Climate Action (ODI)	Explores how labor mobility can help the green transition by transferring knowledge and skills between migrant workers and their home countries	Mason et al. [78]

Source: own study.

provides a list of key projects that address the intersection of migration and climate action, demonstrating the potential for migration to be leveraged as a tool for climate adaptation and development.

For instance, the IOM Diaspora for Climate Action (D4C) Project involves diaspora communities from countries such as Albania, Bangladesh, Ghana, and Jamaica in shaping climate strategies, including nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and national adaptation plans (NAPs). This initiative underscores the role of diasporas in contributing to climate resilience in their countries of origin [71]. Similarly, the Pacific Australia Labour Mobility (PALM) Scheme allows workers from the Pacific Islands to work in Australia’s agricultural sector, gaining valuable skills that they can later apply to climate-resilient agricultural practices in their home countries [79].

These projects illustrate how migration can serve as an adaptation strategy by facilitating the transfer of skills and resources between regions. The Kyrgyz Diaspora Climate Action Project also shows how diaspora communities can contribute both financially and technically to climate resilience efforts in Kyrgyzstan, enhancing local adaptation strategies [71].

4.1.2. Energy and Migration

Migration can significantly affect energy demand and supply in both origin and destination areas. In regions experiencing high levels of outmigration, the shift in population density can alter local energy consumption patterns, potentially reducing demand in depopulated areas or increasing it in areas of migration influx. Conversely, migrants often face challenges in accessing reliable and affordable energy in destination areas, particularly in urban slums or informal settlements. This can lead to energy poverty, hindering their ability to participate in sustainable energy transitions [81].

4.1.3. Energy Transition and Migration

The global shift toward renewable energy and low-carbon technologies—referred to as the energy transition—has the potential to impact migration patterns. As regions strive to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, migration can serve as both a coping strategy and a contributor to sustainable energy initiatives. Migrants may bring with them skills and expertise in renewable energy technologies or become integral to green energy projects in their host communities. However, these transitions can also create tensions, as energy-dependent industries in migrant-origin areas may face disruption, pushing individuals to seek opportunities elsewhere [82]. The resulting migration flows can challenge existing energy infrastructure, particularly in urban areas, if not managed appropriately.

4.1.4. Energy Security and Migration

Energy security—the reliable availability of energy at affordable prices—remains a crucial issue in the context of migration. Migrants, especially those fleeing climate-induced disasters or energy-poor regions, often find themselves in vulnerable positions regarding access to energy. This is particularly problematic in areas where energy infrastructure is already stretched thin or where political instability affects energy provisioning. As migration increases, energy demands in receiving areas rise, requiring adequate planning for sustainable energy access to avoid exacerbating energy insecurity for both migrant and local populations [9]. Moreover, migration itself can be both a result of and a contributor to energy security challenges, as populations displaced by energy shortages or environmental degradation often move in search of stable energy access.

4.1.5. Water Resources and Migration

Migration is closely linked to water scarcity and access to clean water, especially in regions where water resources are increasingly under stress due to climate change, overuse, or pollution. In some cases, water scarcity has directly driven migration, with individuals and families leaving water-stressed regions for areas where water is more readily available. Conversely, large influxes of migrants into urban centers or rural communities can strain local water systems, exacerbating competition for this critical resource. Effective water management is essential to ensure that migration does not further strain already limited water resources in receiving areas. Ensuring equitable access to water for both migrants and host communities is a significant challenge, particularly in regions facing significant water scarcity [83].

The interlinkages between migration, energy, energy security, and water resources (see

Table 11. Migration in the context of energy, energy transition, energy security, and water.

Dimension	Migration’s Impact	Key Challenges	Opportunities	Metrics for Success
Energy	Migration affects energy demand and supply in origin and destination areas. Migrants may face energy poverty in destination regions.	Energy poverty, lack of access to reliable energy in informal settlements	Migrants can contribute to energy access solutions, and their movement can shift energy demand patterns.	Improved energy access, reduction in energy poverty, energy consumption patterns
Energy transition	Migration may bring expertise in renewable energy technologies and contribute to green energy projects.	Disruption of energy-dependent industries in origin areas, tensions in adapting to new energy systems in destination areas	Migrants may help accelerate renewable energy initiatives and contribute to local energy transitions.	Number of green energy projects, migrant participation in energy initiatives, success of energy transition policies
Energy security	Migrants may be displaced by energy insecurity and may also exacerbate energy security issues in destination areas.	Increased energy demand in receiving areas, lack of infrastructure, vulnerability to energy shortages	Migration may highlight the need for sustainable energy infrastructure and increase focus on energy security.	Energy access, energy affordability, energy infrastructure resilience in both migrant and local communities
Water resources	Migration is linked to water scarcity, with migrants moving to areas with better water availability, potentially straining resources.	Increased demand for water in destination areas, competition for limited water resources	Migrants can bring knowledge of water conservation practices and help improve water management strategies.	Access to clean water, water usage efficiency, equitable distribution of water resources

Source: own study.

) highlight the importance of integrating these dimensions into both migration and sustainability policies. Migrants, particularly in regions vulnerable to climate change, have the potential to contribute to and benefit from energy and water management strategies, but their needs must be addressed in planning processes to ensure sustainable, equitable outcomes for all.

Migration is a highly uncertain process, especially when it comes to forced or asylum-related migration, which is associated with the highest levels of uncertainty. Consequently, most quantitative asylum migration models focus on single drivers in countries of origin (e.g., conflicts) [84,85,86] or destination (e.g., migration or asylum policies) [87]. While some more comprehensive asylum migration models have been developed, they often aim to increase retrospective understanding [88,89,90,91] or provide alerts [92] rather than forecasting flows, with exceptions mostly confined to the prediction of single country-to-country flows [93].

On the other hand, machine learning algorithms can be effectively utilized to predict future migration hotspots. A study by Carammia, Iacus, and Wilkin [93] introduced an adaptive machine learning approach that integrates administrative statistics with non-traditional data sources to forecast asylum-related migration flows. This method analyzes various data tiers—including geolocated events, internet search trends, border crossing detections, and asylum recognition rates—to predict migration patterns up to four weeks in advance. The approach monitors migration drivers in both origin and destination countries, models individual country-to-country flows with moving time windows, estimates the effects of various drivers (including lagged effects), and assesses how these patterns shift over time. Importantly, this methodology is adaptable and can be applied in different contexts where adequate migration or asylum data are available. Their approach uniquely monitors drivers in both origin and destination countries to detect early changes, models individual country-to-country migration flows separately using moving time windows, estimates the effects of individual drivers—including lagged effects—and delivers forecasts of asylum applications up to four weeks ahead [93].

This approach represents a significant advancement over previous models that often addressed single migration drivers in isolation. By incorporating a broader range of data sources and modeling techniques, the algorithm provides a more nuanced understanding of the dynamic factors influencing asylum-related migration, thereby improving the accuracy and reliability of migration forecasts.

4.2. Terms: ‘Sustainable Transition’, ‘Nexus’, ‘Environmental Security’, ‘SDSs’/’Sustainable Development Goals’, ‘Climate Change’, and ‘Ecosystem’

4.2.1. Migration and Climate Change

Although climate change is recognized as a significant factor influencing migration, the term ‘climate migrant’ and its equivalents remain subjects of legal and scientific debate. Efforts to quantify future migration linked to climate change continue to be contested and uncertain [94].

From a political perspective, the principle of ‘leaving no one behind’ is a key pillar of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), emphasizing the need for inclusive policies. Achieving universal health coverage is recognized as dependent on the inclusion of migrants [95]. During the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Paris, a task force was created to develop recommendations on addressing displacement linked to climate change [96]. The Platform on Disaster Displacement, succeeding the Nansen Initiative, seeks to implement protections for cross-border displaced persons [97]. According to Szaboova et al. [26] the role of migration as a potential adaptation to climate change is increasingly acknowledged. However, there is limited understanding of whether migration constitutes a successful adaptation, under what conditions, and for whom. Based on a review of emerging migration research, authors argue that migration can be considered a successful adaptation strategy if it enhances well-being, reduces inequality, and supports sustainability. These three dimensions serve as key indicators for evaluating trade-offs within and across different social and temporal scales, which could potentially challenge the effectiveness of migration as an adaptive response. Assessing the success of migration as an adaptation strategy requires a multi-scalar approach that considers several critical factors. These include the depopulation of source areas, the climate-related risks faced in destination regions, and the material and non-material flows that shape economic and social interactions between these areas. Understanding these dynamics is essential for integrating migration into policy frameworks as a viable adaptation option. By making migration more visible and measurable within adaptation planning, policymakers can better address the opportunities and challenges it presents in the context of climate change.

Migration in the context of climate change exists along a spectrum from voluntary to forced movement, with fluid and overlapping categories. In the past decade, migration has increasingly been acknowledged as a legitimate and potentially effective response to climate challenges. Black et al. [9] argue that migration is embedded within broader risk dynamics and should be assessed alongside other forms of mobility driven by economic and social opportunities.

4.2.2. Migration and Sustainable Development

Migration plays a complex role in shaping sustainability outcomes across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. Its impact depends on factors such as the size and composition of migration flows, policy frameworks, and socioeconomic contexts [1,98]. While migration fosters economic growth, social mobility, and innovation, it also poses challenges such as labor market disruptions, brain drain, and increased resource demands [99,100]. The relationship between migration and sustainability (see Table 12) remains contentious, influenced by diverse analytical perspectives and political interpretations [98].

The impact of migration on sustainability is largely mediated by changes in human capital, labor supply, and physical resources [81]. Sustained migration flows may reduce income per capita due to capital dilution—where available resources are spread across a larger population [100]. However, migration also contributes to human capital formation, particularly if migrants bring high levels of education and skills [101]. The labor market effects of migration remain mixed, depending on the demographic composition of migrants and their substitutability with native workers [100].

Migration influences both source and destination areas, with economic, social, and environmental implications [1,102]. Remittances play a crucial role in development by supporting education, healthcare, and infrastructure in migrants’ home countries [1,102]. At the same time, migration alters consumption patterns and environmental footprints. Some studies highlight a positive correlation between migration and CO₂; emissions, as migrants often adopt higher-consumption lifestyles in destination countries [103,104]. Conversely, migration can foster sustainability by facilitating knowledge transfer and improving resilience to environmental stressors [23,82].

Scholars emphasize the importance of recognizing migrant communities as key stakeholders in sustainability planning. Migrants bring valuable knowledge, perspectives, and experiences that can enhance sustainability transitions [81]. However, their voices are often excluded from formal policy discussions [105]. Research shows that integrating diverse perspectives into inclusive knowledge systems leads to more effective and transformative action [106]. Migrant networks influence migration policy outcomes, while restrictive entry and integration policies shape migrants’ ability to contribute to sustainability transitions [1,107]. Migration infrastructure—including institutions, technologies, and social networks—also plays a crucial role in shaping mobility patterns [108].

Migration affects community resilience and resource sustainability by redistributing populations and altering land use patterns [109]. Population growth influences resource demand, while migration-induced shifts in population density impact agricultural and natural resources [83]. Case studies indicate that migrants often perceive sustainability as an integrated concept encompassing social goals, economic opportunities, and urban livability [110].

The UNHCR Global Strategy for Sustainable Energy 2019–2025 aims to provide refugees and host communities with safe, sustainable, and environmentally responsible energy solutions, focusing on renewable energy to reduce environmental impact and improve well-being [111]. Refugees often face energy poverty, relying on harmful sources like diesel generators, which harm health and the environment [112]. Renewable energy solutions offer cleaner, sustainable alternatives, improving living conditions and fostering socioeconomic development. IRENA’s report on refugee settlements in Iraq and Ethiopia suggests solar energy systems and mini-grids to address unreliable power sources and improve energy access. In Iraq, solar systems with battery banks can reduce voltage fluctuations, while in Ethiopia, solar mini-grids can provide immediate electricity access, reducing reliance on polluting fuels. Large-scale solar parks could benefit both refugees and host communities. Renewable energy improves quality of life, safety, and productivity for refugees, stimulates economic growth, and reduces operational costs for humanitarian organizations [112]. These solutions can help alleviate energy poverty and support long-term resilience and development for both displaced populations and host communities.

A key paradox in migration research is its dual role in sustainability. Migration fuels economic globalization, which can intensify sustainability challenges, while also serving as a mechanism for positive social and environmental transformation [81]. Some studies suggest that migration contributes to global carbon emissions [103,104] whereas others highlight its role in building resilience and adaptive capacity [82,113]. This paradox underscores the need for empirical research across spatial and temporal scales to assess migration’s long-term sustainability impacts.

From a policy perspective, effective labor migration management must address contemporary challenges such as demographic shifts, labor market mismatches, and geopolitical uncertainties [114]. Policies should balance labor market flexibility with migrant rights protection to maximize sustainability benefits [115]. However, governance remains fragmented, with migration and sustainability policies often treated in isolation [116]. While the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represented progress by incorporating migration into select targets, integration remains limited [117]. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) advocates for sustainable reintegration pathways for returning migrants, yet these efforts are often disconnected from broader sustainability planning [118].

Table 12. Migration and sustainability—key dynamics.

Aspect	Positive Impacts	Negative Impacts	Key Sources
Economic effects	Remittances boost development, entrepreneurship, innovation	Brain drain, labor market competition	Skeldon [99]; Docquier and Rapoport [101]
Social mobility	Access to education, job opportunities, improved well-being	Social integration challenges, inequality	de Haas [1]; Lyu [119]
Environmental impact	Knowledge exchange, sustainable urban practices	Increased CO2 emissions, higher consumption	Liang et al. [103]; Shi et al. [104]; Hunter and Nawrotzki [120]
Labor market impact	Reduces unemployment in source areas, fills labor gaps	Wage suppression, competition with native workers	Boubtane et al. [100]; Gavonel et al. [81]
Governance and policy	Supports demographic balance, drives policy innovation	Fragmented governance, exclusion from planning	Fukuda-Parr [116]; Piper [117]; IOM [118]

Source: own study.

Table 12. Migration and sustainability—key dynamics.

Aspect	Positive Impacts	Negative Impacts	Key Sources
Economic effects	Remittances boost development, entrepreneurship, innovation	Brain drain, labor market competition	Skeldon [99]; Docquier and Rapoport [101]
Social mobility	Access to education, job opportunities, improved well-being	Social integration challenges, inequality	de Haas [1]; Lyu [119]
Environmental impact	Knowledge exchange, sustainable urban practices	Increased CO2 emissions, higher consumption	Liang et al. [103]; Shi et al. [104]; Hunter and Nawrotzki [120]
Labor market impact	Reduces unemployment in source areas, fills labor gaps	Wage suppression, competition with native workers	Boubtane et al. [100]; Gavonel et al. [81]
Governance and policy	Supports demographic balance, drives policy innovation	Fragmented governance, exclusion from planning	Fukuda-Parr [116]; Piper [117]; IOM [118]

Source: own study.

Migration plays a critical role in shaping sustainability outcomes, offering both opportunities and challenges for economic development, environmental resilience, and social equity. The ambiguous nature of migration’s sustainability effects highlights the need for evidence-based policymaking and integrated governance approaches. Future research should focus on understanding migration’s long-term impact on sustainability transitions and designing policies that leverage migration’s potential while mitigating its risks.

To effectively address the energy needs of growing urban populations due to climate-induced migration, collecting and analyzing migration data are essential. Governments and energy planners must anticipate shifts in population density to prevent energy shortages, power grid failures, and increased energy poverty in rapidly expanding urban areas. Accurate migration data helps identify areas where off-grid renewable energy solutions can be implemented to support displaced communities. Forecasting migration trends allows policymakers to design sustainable energy policies that accommodate urban growth. Regional energy planning can be optimized by integrating migration data with climate risk assessments to reduce the burden on already strained energy grids [74,78]. By investing in real-time migration tracking and energy planning, governments can enhance resilience, ensuring that climate-induced migration does not lead to chronic energy poverty in expanding urban areas.

4.3. Terms: ‘Pakistan’, ‘China’, and ‘NSFC’

Migration patterns in Pakistan and China have become increasingly intertwined with energy, environmental security, and sustainability concerns. Both countries are facing significant challenges related to climate change, resource scarcity, and rapid urbanization, all of which have contributed to changing migration trends. Pakistan, for instance, is heavily impacted by water scarcity and energy insecurity, with large portions of the population migrating from rural areas affected by droughts, water scarcity, and energy shortages toward urban centers in search of better living conditions and job opportunities. This migration, however, places increasing pressure on urban infrastructure, straining local energy systems and resources in the receiving regions [56,60].

In China, migration has been driven by both environmental factors, such as climate-induced disasters and water scarcity, and economic opportunities in urban areas, particularly those related to the energy sector [104]. Rural-to-urban migration, often spurred by the search for better living standards, has been coupled with the rapid industrialization and urbanization of cities, resulting in increased energy demand and air pollution. Moreover, the NSFC (National Natural Science Foundation of China) has supported various research efforts aimed at understanding how migration interacts with energy transitions and environmental changes in China. Studies funded by the NSFC explore the relationship between migration flows and energy consumption, examining how changes in population dynamics may either ease or exacerbate the challenges surrounding energy security and environmental sustainability [58,67]. These studies aim to inform policy decisions on managing migration in the context of energy transitions and securing sustainable resource management.

In both countries, migration intersects with energy transition efforts. For example, the growing demand for energy in urban areas driven by migration poses a challenge for energy systems, especially in countries like Pakistan, where energy insecurity is a persistent issue. At the same time, migration flows could also contribute to energy solutions, as individuals with expertise in renewable energy technologies may migrate to areas where their skills are needed to support the transition to low-carbon energy systems [48]. In China, the shift to renewable energy sources has been partly influenced by migration trends, as workers with skills in renewable technologies contribute to new energy projects, helping to integrate sustainable energy practices into urban development [50].

NSFC-funded research continues to play a significant role in understanding the complex interactions between migration, energy security, and environmental sustainability. Through its support, the NSFC facilitates studies that investigate the dual role of migration as both a response to and a driver of energy and environmental challenges, providing critical insights into how migration can be managed to support sustainable development goals. Additionally, the research underscores the need to incorporate migration considerations into energy and climate change policies to achieve more sustainable and equitable outcomes [49,67].

4.4. Terms: ‘Geochemistry’ and ‘Physics’

In the context of migration, geochemistry and physics are among the least economically relevant topics, which is why we approach them in a broad and general manner. Rather than focusing on aspects such as effective thermal conductivity or the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources—topics that, while significant in scientific discourse, do not directly relate to human migration—we prioritize social, political, and economic factors that drive and shape migratory movements. Studies on migration, such as those by de Haas, Castles, and Miller [13], emphasize the importance of structural economic conditions, labor markets, and geopolitical factors over purely physical or geochemical considerations. While environmental conditions, including climate change, can influence migration patterns [9], the role of geochemical and physical properties remains secondary in most analyses. However, some studies have explored the connection between migration and geochemistry or physics, particularly in relation to environmental change. For example, Black et al. [9] discuss how soil degradation, desertification, and extreme weather events increase migration pressures. Warner et al. [121] highlight the loss of water resources and changes in soil chemistry as key migration drivers, especially in vulnerable regions. Scheffran et al. [122] analyze how geochemical changes and resource depletion contribute to social tensions and forced displacement. Henry et al. [123] examine rainfall variability and its effects on soil water balance, which in turn shape agricultural migration patterns. McLeman and Smit [124] consider migration as an adaptive response to environmental stressors such as soil degradation, hydrological shifts, and erosion (

Table 13. Migration in the context of geochemistry and physics.

Author	Study Title	Scope of Study	Impact on Migration
Black et al. [9]	The Effect of Environmental Change on Human Migration	Analysis of the impact of climate change and environmental degradation on migration	Increased migration from regions affected by desertification, soil degradation, and extreme weather events
Warner et al. [121]	In Search of Shelter: Mapping the Effects of Climate Change on Human Migration	Examination of the links between climate change and population displacement	Loss of water resources and changes in soil chemistry as migration drivers
Scheffran et al. [122]	Climate Change, Natural Resources, and Violent Conflict	Analysis of how environmental changes influence conflicts and migration	Ecosystem degradation and geochemical changes leading to social tensions and migration
Henry et al. [123]	The Impact of Rainfall on the First Out-Migration: A Multi-level Event History Analysis in Burkina Faso	Study on the relationship between rainfall variability and migration	Changes in soil water balance influencing seasonal agricultural migration
McLeman and Smit [124]	Migration as an Adaptation to Climate Change	The role of soil degradation, hydrological changes, and erosion in population displacement	Migration as an adaptive mechanism in response to environmental degradation and changes in physical land properties

Source: own study.

).

4.5. Terms: ‘Health’, ‘Food’, and ‘Citizen’

Migration intersects with several global challenges, with health, food security, and citizenship standing out as key components that shape both the causes and consequences of migration. Understanding these issues in relation to migration can provide deeper insights into how to manage the dynamics between migrant populations and host societies, as well as address global sustainability goals.

4.5.1. Health and Migration

Migration, particularly in the context of climate change, displacement, and economic hardship, often impacts the health of individuals and communities [94,125,126].

Migrants are frequently exposed to health risks during their journey, including increased vulnerability to infectious diseases, mental health challenges due to trauma, and limited access to healthcare upon arrival in destination areas [127]. These challenges are compounded by a lack of adequate healthcare infrastructure in migrant-receiving areas, particularly in informal settlements and overcrowded urban areas. Migrants may also encounter barriers to health insurance or public health services, exacerbating health inequalities. Conversely, migration can also have positive health outcomes, particularly when migrants gain access to better healthcare, sanitation, or nutrition in destination areas. Additionally, migrants may bring with them valuable public health knowledge and cultural practices that can contribute to community health [105].

4.5.2. Food and Migration

Migration and food security are intimately connected, as migrants often face food insecurity both during and after their move. In destination areas, migrants may experience limited access to affordable, nutritious food, especially in urban slums or rural areas with inadequate supply chains. This can lead to malnutrition, poor health, and exacerbated vulnerability, especially among women, children, and the elderly. Additionally, migration can impact food systems in both sending and receiving areas. Large-scale migration can strain local food resources, especially in communities that already experience food insecurity. A study by Schwerdtle et al. [94] underscores that food and water security are important mediators between climate change, human mobility, and health outcomes.

On the other hand, migrants can contribute to food security in host areas through labor in agricultural sectors, food production, and the transfer of agricultural knowledge and practices from their regions of origin [119]. In some cases, migrants bring new food practices that can diversify diets and improve nutrition.

4.5.3. Citizenship and Migration

The concept of citizenship plays a significant role in migration dynamics, influencing the rights and opportunities available to migrants. Access to citizenship—or a lack thereof—affects migrants’ ability to integrate into host societies, access social services, and participate in economic and political processes. In many countries, migrants face barriers to obtaining citizenship or even permanent residency, which can limit their access to essential services like healthcare, education, and social security. The lack of formal citizenship status may also contribute to marginalization and social exclusion, further exacerbating inequalities. On the other hand, granting citizenship or offering pathways to citizenship for migrants can lead to positive outcomes for both migrants and host societies, fostering greater social cohesion, labor force participation, and economic development [100]. Furthermore, migrants who become citizens often play a significant role in shaping the cultural and social fabric of the host society, enriching the local community.

In conclusion, the interconnectedness of health, food, and citizenship with migration underscores the importance of integrating these factors into comprehensive migration policies. Addressing health challenges, ensuring food security, and facilitating access to citizenship are critical in promoting sustainable and equitable migration outcomes. Policymakers should prioritize these dimensions in both sending and receiving areas to ensure that migration contributes positively to human development and well-being for all involved.

The relation between migration, health, food, and citizenship is presented in

Table 14. Migration in the context of health, food, and citizenship.

Dimension	Migration’s Impact	Key Challenges	Opportunities	Metrics for Success
Health	Exposure to health risks, mental health challenges, healthcare access limitations	Limited access to healthcare, health insurance, mental health support	Access to better healthcare, exposure to diverse health knowledge	Healthcare access, reduced disease incidence, mental health improvement, mortality rates
Food security	Vulnerability to food insecurity, lack of nutritious food	Limited access to affordable food, strained food resources in destination areas	Migrants contribute to agricultural labor, introduce diverse food practices	Nutritional status, food access, local food production
Citizenship	Affects rights, access to services, and social integration	Barriers to citizenship, political and social exclusion	Granting citizenship can foster integration and contribute to economic growth	Access to services, participation in political processes, legal rights

Source: own study.

.

Climate-induced migration is reshaping population distribution in urban areas, as displaced rural populations often move to cities seeking better economic opportunities and essential services. This rapid urbanization places significant pressure on housing, energy supply, and public infrastructure. In cities experiencing climate displacement, informal settlements often expand, increasing vulnerability to overcrowding, inadequate energy access, and exposure to climate hazards [73]. In Bangladesh, for example, coastal erosion and rising sea levels have driven rural populations to Dhaka, where they face unstable housing and insufficient energy infrastructure. Similarly, in Sub-Saharan Africa, prolonged droughts have forced migration to urban centers, leading to higher energy demand that often surpasses supply capacity [74]. Without planned urban expansion and investment in renewable energy infrastructure, climate-induced migration can overwhelm energy grids and public services, increasing inequality in access to resources.

5. Conclusions

The reviewed literature demonstrates the growing intersection between energy security, migration, climate change, and sustainability across diverse global regions. Several studies highlight that migration is not only a consequence of environmental degradation and climate change but also a significant factor influencing energy security and sustainability. In Pakistan, for example, migration driven by water scarcity and energy insecurity is putting pressure on urban areas, exacerbating the demand for energy and resource management [60]. Similarly, in China, the dynamics of migration in rural areas related to climate-induced changes, such as water scarcity, are crucial to understanding how energy transitions and climate policy can be shaped [67].

The relationship between energy transformation and migration is also explored, with findings suggesting that migration may either be a driver of or a response to energy transitions. As regions shift to renewable energy systems, the migration of workers with expertise in renewable technologies could help mitigate challenges posed by energy demand in urban areas [48,49]. In other instances, migration could exacerbate challenges related to energy security, especially in regions facing significant socioeconomic inequality and resource depletion [68].

Migration, climate change, and energy systems are deeply interconnected in shaping migration processes. Climate-induced environmental changes, such as rising temperatures, desertification, and extreme weather events, often push populations to migrate in search of better living conditions and access to resources. These migration patterns, in turn, affect energy demand and infrastructure in both sending and receiving regions. As migrants relocate to urban centers or regions with better economic prospects, energy consumption rises, creating additional pressure on local energy supplies and sustainability efforts [128]. Simultaneously, migration can support energy transitions by providing labor for renewable energy projects, particularly in areas investing in wind, solar, and hydroelectric power. However, disparities in energy access between regions can also exacerbate socioeconomic inequalities, influencing migration decisions. The bidirectional relationship between migration and energy transitions highlights the need for integrated policies that address climate resilience, sustainable energy development, and equitable migration management.

Furthermore, the role of climate change in altering migration patterns and its direct impact on energy systems are highlighted in various studies. Climate-induced migration, such as that driven by melting glaciers in the Himalayas or environmental changes in Tuva, has significant implications for both energy systems and socioeconomic structures [63,69]. The combined effects of these interconnected factors point to the need for a more integrated approach to policy development that addresses energy transitions, migration flows, and climate change.

Socioeconomic disparities further complicate migration dynamics, as unequal access to resources and energy systems exacerbate vulnerabilities in certain populations. Marginalized communities, often already living under precarious economic conditions, are disproportionately affected by climate change, which forces them to migrate in search of better opportunities [70,129]. The disparities in access to energy between regions push economically disadvantaged individuals to move toward urban centers, where energy resources are more abundant, but often lead to greater competition for jobs and housing [130,131]. These economic pressures create a feedback loop where migration driven by inequality can also contribute to increasing social and economic disparities in destination areas [122,132].

Akrofi et al. [68] highlight that labor migration is one of the consequences of injustices within renewable energy projects. The exploitation of natural resources for clean energy initiatives can place significant pressure on local resources, leading to the displacement and dispossession of communities. This not only results in the loss of land for these communities but also stimulates labor migration as individuals are forced to seek new economic opportunities elsewhere. This issue is particularly relevant in areas where the push for renewable energy projects may inadvertently contribute to new forms of social and economic inequality [68].

Additionally, Koliesnik et al. [65] emphasize that attacks on critical infrastructure increase the demand for certain professions, including those related to energy security, leading to mass layoffs in other sectors. This creates another layer of complexity, as the dynamics of labor migration intersect with broader societal and economic changes triggered by shifts in the energy sector. As both migration and energy transitions become more complex, it is evident that policy solutions must address the interconnections between these issues to ensure sustainable, equitable, and resilient outcomes for both migrants and host communities.

These findings highlight the need for integrated strategies that combine migration management, energy security, and climate change mitigation to promote sustainable development in regions experiencing rapid demographic and environmental changes. By considering these factors in policy design, governments can create systems that not only support energy transitions but also ensure the protection and empowerment of migrant communities.

As a result, the complex relationship between migration, climate change, health, and energy transitions requires a multi-dimensional approach to evaluate its role in sustainable development. Migration often has both positive and negative effects on the sustainability of both origin and destination areas. While migration can offer individuals opportunities to improve their well-being through better job prospects and access to education, it also raises challenges such as increased pressure on local resources and potential environmental degradation in destination areas. At the same time, migration can enhance the ability of both individuals and communities to adapt to climate change by diversifying income sources, facilitating the transfer of knowledge, and contributing to the sustainable management of natural resources [1,119].

Climate change is increasingly recognized as a driver of migration, especially in areas prone to extreme weather events and rising sea levels. However, migration also presents a means of adaptation, enabling individuals and communities to move away from high-risk areas [9]. Health risks linked to climate change, such as heat stress and the spread of diseases, further complicate the dynamic, necessitating an inclusive approach that integrates healthcare, infrastructure, and migration management [83,110]. As migration patterns increase, the need for policies that ensure equitable access to healthcare and safeguard health systems becomes critical, as migrants are often exposed to heightened vulnerability in terms of climate-related health risks [113].

Energy transitions, likewise, present both challenges and opportunities for migrants. Migrants contribute to energy needs, but they also bring skills that can support sustainable energy initiatives, from renewable energy development to low-carbon transport solutions [82,103]. By addressing the intersection of these factors, migration can be harnessed as a tool for both adaptation to climate change and the achievement of broader sustainability goals. Migrants, by integrating into labor markets, can contribute to sustainable energy production, which is key for global energy transitions in the context of climate change [108].

This evaluation framework, with its key dimensions (

Table 15. Migration, climate change, health, energy transitions, and socioeconomic equity: dimensions of success, trade-offs, and metrics.

Dimension of Success	Trade-Offs	Metrics of Success	Description	Literature
Well-being	Balancing different well-being dimensions (objective, subjective, relational) across individuals (men/women/children), households, and migrants	- Improved housing and living conditions in destination - Healthcare and social protection coverage for migrants - Change in income levels - School attendance among migrant children -Proportion of remittances invested in productive assets (e.g., land, businesses) vs. consumption - Food security and nutrition - Mental health and well-being - Strength of social capital and community networks	Migration affects individuals’ well-being both positively and negatively. While some migrants benefit from better living conditions, employment, and education opportunities, others face challenges such as discrimination, poor housing, and reduced social support. The impact on well-being varies depending on the context and conditions of migration. Remittances can significantly improve the quality of life in migrant-sending regions, but these benefits can be undermined if migrants face poor living and working conditions.	Gavonel et al. [81]; Lyu [119]; Skeldon [10]
Equity	Balancing risks and benefits among different social groups, including gender, age, and socioeconomic status	- Political representation of migrants in destination and participation in policy processes - Women’s participation in community decision-making - Equal access to healthcare services - Access to early warning systems and meteorological information - Inclusion of migrants in climate adaptation and resilience planning - Reduction in mortality and morbidity linked to environmental hazards - Equitable access to energy resources and clean technologies	Migration often highlights or exacerbates existing inequalities. Gender disparities, for example, can mean migrant women have different vulnerabilities and opportunities compared to men. Access to healthcare and social protection systems can either enhance or undermine equity, depending on how inclusive local policies are.	de Haas [1] Siddiqui et al. [105]; Piper [117]; Rigaud et al. [70]; Morrissey [129]
Sustainability	Managing interactions between social and ecological systems and across different spatial scales (origin, transit, and destination)	- Access to vocational training and education for green jobs - Integration of traditional and scientific knowledge for resource management - Access to social protection mechanisms - Adoption of sustainable agricultural and water management practices - Contribution of migrant labor to renewable energy transitions - Reduction in carbon footprint in migrant-receiving urban areas - Sustainable urban planning to accommodate migration flows	Migration’s relationship with sustainability is complex. While migration can sometimes exacerbate environmental pressures, it also opens up opportunities for knowledge exchange, especially in relation to environmental practices. Migrants can play a crucial role in both reducing and adapting to climate impacts, often bringing sustainable practices from their places of origin.	de Haas [1]; Sørensen [110]; Xiang and Lindquist [108]
Climate change resilience	Migration as both a response to and a driver of environmental change	- Migrant access to climate-resilient infrastructure - Role of remittances in climate adaptation investments - Participation in local environmental governance - Migration as a tool for managed retreats from high-risk areas	Migration can be a strategic adaptation response to climate change, especially in areas experiencing rising sea levels, extreme weather events, or desertification. However, migration can also lead to environmental challenges in receiving areas, especially if infrastructure is not adapted to sudden population growth.	Adger et al. [113]; Black et al. [9]; Liang et al. [103]
Health	Ensuring equitable healthcare access while managing pressures on health systems	- Availability of mental health support for migrants - Reduction in climate-induced health risks (e.g., heat stress, vector-borne diseases) - Access to maternal and child healthcare - Health outcomes in migrant and host populations - Inclusion of migrant health in national health policies	Health outcomes are critical to the success of migration as adaptation. Migrants, especially those in vulnerable conditions, face various health risks such as climate-related diseases, mental health issues, and barriers to healthcare access. Effective migration and health policies are needed to mitigate these risks and promote well-being.	Sørensen [110]; Rees [83]; Fukuda-Parr [116]
Energy transitions	Managing energy demand and access while reducing environmental impact	- Migrant access to clean energy and affordable electricity - Participation in sustainable energy workforce - Adoption of low-carbon transport solutions - Contribution of migration to energy innovation and technology transfer	As migration patterns increase, so do energy needs. Migrants often face challenges accessing reliable and clean energy sources, but they can also contribute to energy transitions, both as consumers and as part of the workforce involved in sustainable energy development.	Liang et al. [103]; Tebboth et al. [82]

Source: own study.

), offers a starting point for examining the multifaceted role of migration in the context of climate change adaptation and the broader goal of sustainable development. Understanding the trade-offs and balancing the interests of different stakeholders, from migrants to host communities, is crucial to ensuring that migration can effectively contribute to resilience and sustainability in a changing world.

Ultimately, the research underscores the need for interdisciplinary solutions and policy frameworks that consider the intersection of migration, energy, and climate change. These challenges must be addressed holistically, ensuring that migration is seen as both a response and a contributor to sustainable development and climate resilience, especially in countries like Pakistan, China, and regions impacted by rapid environmental changes. Further research is needed to explore the impacts of migration on energy transitions, focusing on how migration can be both a tool for sustainable development and a challenge to resource management in vulnerable regions. Future research should focus on understanding how migration influences climate change impacts, particularly in terms of reducing risks and potential negative effects on both origin and destination areas, such as resource use and infrastructure strain. It is also crucial to explore how migration affects energy demand and the role migrants play in promoting sustainable energy, as well as their access to renewable energy. Further investigation is needed into the health risks faced by migrants due to climate-induced factors, ensuring equitable healthcare access. Additionally, research should explore migration’s social, economic, and environmental trade-offs, especially regarding remittances, labor redistribution, and social mobility. Long-term studies on migrant communities’ resilience and integration into labor markets will help inform sustainable development strategies. Finally, understanding migration’s impact on water resource management in regions facing scarcity is key to developing adaptive policies. Addressing these areas will enhance our understanding of migration’s role in climate adaptation and sustainability.

Furthermore, given the diverse mobility patterns emerging in the context of climate change, flexible approaches are needed that address the vulnerabilities of communities at risk of or experiencing forced migration while supporting the adaptive potential of mobility strategies. It is essential to develop policies that effectively protect health and its determinants, particularly food and water security, regardless of the climate scenario. Further analysis is required to ensure the meaningful integration of climate data into research on migration and health in the context of a changing climate, maintaining high quality in this evolving field of nexus research. Migrant-inclusive and climate-resilient health systems have the potential to mitigate the most severe health impacts of climate-related migration. It seems important that research and policy related to migration also consider the links between climate change and health and that migration is considered a determinant of health in climate change and health research [94].

In conclusion, supporting sustainable energy transitions like recycling and waste-to-energy initiatives is crucial for regions affected by climate-induced migration. These solutions can address energy shortages, reduce environmental impacts, and create new employment opportunities for displaced populations.

Waste-to-energy technologies offer a renewable energy source, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, while recycling helps conserve resources and reduce landfill waste. These strategies not only improve energy access and sustainability but also foster resilience and self-sufficiency in both displaced and host communities. By integrating these solutions, regions can enhance their adaptation to climate change, creating a more sustainable future for all [111,112].

The main limitations of the conducted research are related to the disadvantages of SLR, which include, among others, overly rigorous selection criteria, subjectively determined complexity of the issue, the exclusion of gray literature (no additional searches outside the databases), and limitation to publications published in specific languages [133]. The aforementioned considerations also pertain to the limitations intrinsically linked to the study’s focus. These limitations encompass the limited depth of analysis concerning stakeholder interests, interdisciplinary methodologies, the role of migration as a catalyst for sustainable development, its ramifications for energy consumption, the trade-offs inherent in migration processes, and health protection directives, among other facets. The latter of these limitations constitutes a group of research gaps complementary to those resulting directly from the results section of this article and concerning terms related to currently underexplored topics such as ‘China’, ‘NSFC’, ‘ecosystem’, ‘citizen’, ‘Sustainable Development Goals’, ‘economic development’, and ‘energy security’.