Next Article in Journal
Augmenting Residential AC Electric Water Heating with Dedicated Direct-to-Element DC Solar Photovoltaic
Previous Article in Journal
Does Income Inequality Influence Energy Consumption in the European Union?
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Energies
Volume 18
Issue 4
10.3390/en18040791
energies-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Methane Emissions from Mining in the European Union

by
Magdalena Zięba
1 and
Adam Smoliński
2,*
1
Department of Geology and Geophysics and Surface Protection, Central Mining Institute–National Research Institute, 40-166 Katowice, Poland
2
Central Mining Institute–National Research Institute, Scientific Secretary, 40-166 Katowice, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(4), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040791
Submission received: 15 December 2024 / Revised: 4 February 2025 / Accepted: 6 February 2025 / Published: 8 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Methane emissions from coal mining remain a significant environmental challenge in the European Union, particularly in the context of climate change commitments and the ongoing transformation of the energy sector. This article analyses methane emissions from surface and underground coal mining, distinguishing between emissions from mining activities, abandoned underground mines, and post-mining activities. A key aspect of the analysis is the methane emissions per 1000 tonnes of lignite and hard coal mined, which allows a comparison of emission intensities between different mining methods. Between 2009 and 2021, methane emissions from coal mining in the EU decrease, with reductions of 2436 kt CO2 eq. (87 kt CH4) from surface mining and 16,518 kt CO2 eq. (590 kt CH4) from underground mining. However, total methane emissions in 2021 still amount to 25,414 kt CO2 eq. (908 kt CH4), with underground mining contributing 84.7% of the emissions. Discrepancies in national emissions reporting and the lack of transparent data on methane emissions from imported coal make accurate assessments difficult. Strengthening international cooperation, improving data transparency, and exploring methane recovery for energy use are essential steps towards achieving the EU’s climate change objectives.

1. Introduction

Coal has been an important energy source for EU countries for decades. Between 2000 and 2023, the share of coal in electricity generation in the EU fell by 59.7%. In 2023, the share of coal in EU energy production was 12.3% [1]. In recent decades, there has been a downward trend in both coal production in the European Union and coal imports into Member States. This is the result of significant changes in EU energy, economic, and environmental policies. EU policies support processes aimed at phasing out the mining industry in the European Union. Decarbonisation plans are being introduced in Member States as part of the energy transition. The EU is gradually closing mines and reducing coal production. The move away from coal as an energy source is due to its increasingly unprofitable production [2]. This is due, among other things, to the high operating costs, rising carbon dioxide emission charges, and increased investment in renewable energy sources [3]. The decline in coal production is also a result of the European Union’s climate policy, which has introduced numerous regulations aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions [4] and achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement [5], as well as limiting methane emissions in the energy sector [6,7].
According to Eurostat [8,9], in 2022, the European Union’s electricity generation by source was as follows: renewable energy sources—39.4% (wind—15.9%, hydropower—11.3%, solar—7.6%, biomass—4.4%, and geothermal—0.2%), fossil fuels—38.7% (gas—19.6%, coal—15.8%, oil—1.6%, and other—1.7%), and nuclear energy—21.9%. Increased investment in renewable energy sources (RESs) contributes to the closure of coal-fired power plants through economic, regulatory, and social mechanisms. Increasing the share of RESs in the EU’s energy mix leads to lower electricity prices on the wholesale market, especially during periods of high RES production. The introduction of support mechanisms for RESs makes investments in coal-fired power plants, which have higher operating costs, less profitable [10,11]. In addition, the European Union is introducing increasingly stringent CO2 emission standards and increasing the cost of emission allowances, which increases the financial pressure on coal-fired power plants [12,13]. According to the IEA, investors are looking to invest in clean energy because it is supported by the policies and will become more economically attractive in the future [14].
Compared to the global situation, the European Union’s coal phase-out is characterised by specific conditions, mainly driven by energy policies aimed at climate neutrality and Green Deal commitments. An important factor is also the increasing regulatory pressure, especially in the form of the EU ETS, where the price of CO2 allowances has increased significantly in recent years, negatively affecting the profitability of coal-fired power plants. One of the key elements of the energy transition in the EU is gas-fired combined cycle power plants (NGCC). Compared to coal-fired power plants, NGCC technologies have lower CO2 emissions per unit of energy produced, which further strengthens their competitiveness in the face of rising emission costs in the EU ETS. According to a study [15], CO2 emissions from NGCCs can be around 50–60% lower than from conventional coal-fired power plants. In addition, NGCC power plants can ramp up and down the power from combustion turbines faster, making them more adaptable to changes in power from wind or solar sources than coal-fired power plants [16].
The European Union aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, as stated in the European Green Deal [17,18]. Achieving this goal requires a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, including methane emissions. Methane (CH4) is a major contributor to climate change and global warming and is also a serious air pollutant. Over 100 years, methane has a global warming potential of 28, meaning it is 28 times more effective at trapping heat than CO2 over this period. Major sources of methane emissions are surface lignite mining and underground hard coal mining [6,7,19,20,21].
In surface lignite mining, methane is released into the atmosphere at several stages. Methane can be released into the atmosphere during the mining phase and during drilling to locate and evaluate coal reserves [22]. During this process, geological layers containing methane are disturbed. Methane can be released during the removal of overburden, the layer of soil and rock above the coal in which the methane is trapped. Methane emissions from operating surface coal mines include emissions during mining activities and emissions during post-mining activities. Methane is released directly from coal seams during the mining process. Methane emissions from post-mining activities include emissions during coal storage and transportation [6,7,23]. In theory, there are ways to extract methane from surface mines. However, due to the dispersion of methane and its low concentration, the process is currently limited in practice and requires further research.
In underground hard coal mining, methane emissions can come from mining activities, abandoned underground mines, and post-mining activities. In the case of operating underground mines, methane is released from coal seams during extraction. Methane emissions from operating underground coal mines include emissions from ventilation shafts, methane drainage stations, and the methane drainage system, as well as emissions from post-mining activities. Methane is also released during mine drainage. Methane can also escape from abandoned and closed mines after mining has ceased. Methane emissions then include, but are not limited to, emissions from ventilation shafts that continue to emit methane, emissions from abandoned coal mining equipment, emissions from disused gas lines, emissions from disused methane drainage wells, and emissions from outcrops. Methane can also migrate from coal seams through cracks and fractures in the rock mass to locations far from the mine [6,7,23,24,25]. The temporal variability of methane emissions in mines is determined by the interaction of natural factors, such as geological structure and gas distribution, and mining factors, which mainly include the depth of mining and the intensity of coal extraction [26,27]. Methane from underground coal mines can be captured, for example, through boreholes or in methane drainage systems, and used for energy generation. This also improves mine safety and helps reduce methane emissions into the atmosphere [27,28].
The main objective of this article is to analyse methane emissions from the mining sector in the European Union, distinguishing between emissions from surface and underground coal mining and between emissions from mining activities, abandoned underground mines, and post-mining activities. A key element is the estimation of methane emissions per 1000 tonnes of lignite and hard coal mined, which allows a comparison of the emission intensity of different mining methods. In addition, the main sources of methane emissions in mines and the potential for its use as an alternative energy source are presented. In the context of the European Union’s energy policy, the article analyses how support for renewable energy sources and investment in lower-emission technologies, such as natural-gas-fired power plants (NGCCs), affect the coal sector. It also discusses methods for monitoring methane emissions at different stages of the mine life cycle, from mining to mine closure and post-mining activities. Particular attention is given to inconsistencies in the reporting of methane emissions by some EU countries and the lack of transparent data on emissions associated with imported coal. The article also provides an overview of lignite and hard coal production in the EU and the amount of imported coal by Member State, in order to better understand the structure of the coal sector in the context of the EU climate and energy policy. The results of this review contribute to a more comprehensive view of methane emissions from both domestic mining and imported coal. The novelty of this article lies in its integrated approach, combining emissions analysis, data transparency issues, and the impact of EU environmental and climate policies on the coal sector. The article provides a comprehensive assessment of methane emissions in the context of the EU energy transition and is a valuable resource for policy makers, industry representatives, and researchers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Coal Production

Based on graphical data from Euracoal [29], Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3 show the amount of lignite produced in surface mines and hard coal produced in underground mines in the countries of the European Union, as well as the amount of coal imported into the EU in individual years from 2009 to 2023. The tables include Croatia from 2013 (EU accession) and the United Kingdom until 2020 (EU withdrawal).

2.2. Methane Emissions from Mining

This chapter presents the amount of methane emissions from surface mining of lignite and underground mining of hard coal in the European Union for the years 2009–2021, based on data from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [30]. There are no recent data on the amount of methane emissions from coal mining in the EU for 2022–2023. Methane emissions are reported in the annual reports submitted by Member States to the UN [31]. Table 4 summarises the amounts of methane emissions associated with surface lignite mining in the European Union. These emissions include emissions from mining activities and emissions from post-mining activities. Table 5 and Table 6 summarise the amounts of methane emissions associated with underground hard coal mining in the European Union. These emissions include emissions from mining activities and abandoned underground mines, as well as emissions from post-mining activities.
From 2024, the monitoring of methane emissions in the coal sector is regulated by provisions contained in the so-called Methane Regulation [7]. These provisions apply to active underground and surface coal mines, as well as to closed and abandoned underground coal mines. In active underground mines, methane emissions are monitored by continuous, direct measurement at source level, covering all ventilation shafts and drainage stations. High accuracy equipment is used. In active surface mines, methane emissions from mining activities are estimated using deposit-specific emission factors. These factors are updated quarterly based on the results of coal sample analyses. Methane emissions from post-mining activities are estimated using deposit-specific emission factors. These factors are updated annually based on the results of coal sample analyses. From 2026, methane emissions from closed and abandoned underground mines will be monitored using measuring equipment installed in mines that emit more than 0.5 tonnes of methane per year. Measurements will be taken at least once an hour. If methane emissions remain below 1 tonne per year for six years (in flooded mines) or twelve years (in non-flooded mines), monitoring can be stopped. Mine operators are required to report the results of the measurements to the competent authorities and these reports are verified and made available to the public. Prior to the introduction of the Methane Regulation, methane emissions were monitored in both underground and surface coal mines, but there were no uniform, detailed requirements for the methods, equipment, or measurement standards used. The situation varied from country to country, depending on the internal regulations and best practices of individual mining companies. Previous methods of monitoring methane emissions may have led to an underestimation of emissions.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Coal Production

Figure 1 and Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3 show the amounts of lignite and hard coal produced in surface and underground mines in the countries of the European Union, as well as the amounts of coal imported into EU countries in individual years from 2009 to 2023, based on data from Euracoal [29]. In the European Union in 2023, coal production and imports together amounted to 367.9 million tonnes (Mt), while 223.9 Mt of lignite were produced in surface mines and 49.7 Mt of hard coal were produced in underground mines. Lignite was extracted from surface mines in nine countries, namely, Bulgaria, Czechia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Hard coal was produced in underground mines in two countries, Czechia and Poland. In 2023, almost all Member States imported coal from outside the European Union. Coal imports amounted to 94.3 Mt. The main suppliers of coal to the EU were as follows [32]: the United States, Australia, Colombia, South Africa, and Indonesia, with a decreasing share of imports from Russia. In general, the European Union has been experiencing a downward trend in coal mining and coal imports by Member States for many years. Between 2009 and 2023, the decline in lignite and hard coal extraction is 47.0% and 66.5%, respectively, and the decline in coal imports is 56.6%.
Figure 2 shows the shares of lignite production in surface mines and of hard coal in underground mines in the European Union, as well as the share of coal imports to EU countries in the last three years, i.e., 2021–2023. The shares of lignite and hard coal production were 60.9–62.7% and 11.4–13.5%, respectively, and the share of coal imports was 24.3–26.8%. In the EU, lignite production in 2023 was more than 1.5 times higher than the total of hard coal production and coal imports. Thus, coal imports to Member States were almost twice as high as hard coal production in the European Union.

3.2. Methane Emissions from Mining

Both surface and underground coal mining contribute to methane emissions to the atmosphere. Figure 3 shows the total methane emissions from the surface mining of lignite and underground mining of hard coal in the European Union for the years 2009–2021 [30]. In the case of surface lignite mining, methane emissions include emissions from mining activities and emissions from post-mining activities. For underground hard coal mining, methane emissions include emissions from mining activities and abandoned underground mines, as well as emissions from post-mining activities. In the European Union in 2021, total methane emissions from surface and underground mining together amounted to 25,413.64 kt CO2 eq. (907.63 kt CH4) and included emissions from the following (Figure 3):
  • Surface mining—3887.98 kt CO2 eq. (138.86 kt CH4), or 15.3%;
  • Underground mining—21,525.66 kt CO2 eq. (768.77 kt CH4), or 84.7%.
In general, the total methane emissions from the surface mining of lignite and underground mining of hard coal in the European Union show a decreasing trend between 2009 and 2021. The decrease in methane emissions associated with surface mining was 2435.90 kt CO2 eq. (87.00 kt CH4). The decrease in methane emissions associated with underground mining was 16,518.14 kt CO2 eq. (589.93 kt CH4). The shares of methane emission reductions associated with surface and underground mining were 12.9% and 87.1%, respectively (Figure 4). The share of the methane emission reduction from underground mining was 6.8 times higher than the share of the methane emission reduction from surface mining.
In the European Union in 2021, methane emissions from surface lignite mining amounted to 3887.98 kt CO2 eq. (138.86 kt CH4) and included emissions from the following (Figure 5):
  • Mining activities—3648.95 kt CO2 eq. (130.32 kt CH4), or 93.9%;
  • Post-mining activities—239.03 kt CO2 eq. (8.54 kt CH4), or 6.1%.
In the European Union between 2009 and 2021, the total reduction in methane emissions from surface lignite mining was 2435.90 kt CO2 eq. (87.00 kt CH4), which is 38.5%. The decrease in methane emissions from mining activities was 2372.32 kt CO2 eq. (84.73 kt CH4), which is 37.5%. The decrease in methane emissions from post-mining activities was 63.58 kt CO2 eq. (2.27 kt CH4), which is 2.6%. Of the total decrease in methane emissions from surface lignite mining, the decrease in methane emissions from mining and post-mining activities was 97.4% and 2.6% respectively (Figure 6). The share of the decrease in methane emissions from mining activities was 37.3 times higher than the share of the decrease in methane emissions from post-mining activities.
In the European Union in 2021, methane emissions from underground hard coal mining amounted to 21,525.66 kt CO2 eq. (768.77 kt CH4) and included emissions from the following (Figure 7):
  • Mining activities—12,174.65 kt CO2 eq. (434.81 kt CH4), or 56.6%;
  • Abandoned underground mines—6586.30 kt CO2 eq. (235.23 CH4), or 30.6%;
  • Post-mining activities—2764.71 kt CO2 eq. (98.74 kt CH4), or 12.8%.
In the European Union between 2009 and 2021, the total reduction in methane emissions from underground hard coal mining was 16,518.14 kt CO2 eq. (589.93 kt CH4), which is 43.4%. The decrease in methane emissions from mining activities was 11,542.71 kt CO2 eq. (412.24 kt CH4), which is 30.3%. The decrease in methane emissions from abandoned underground mines was 2670.79 kt CO2 eq. (95.39 kt CH4), which is 7.0%. The decrease in methane emissions from post-mining activities was 2304.64 kt CO2 eq. (82.31 kt CH4), which is 6.1%. Of the total decrease in methane emissions from underground hard coal mining, the decrease in methane emissions from mining activities, abandoned underground mines, and post-mining activities was 69.9%, 16.2%, and 13.9%, respectively (Figure 8). The share of the decrease in methane emissions from mining activities was 4.3 times and 5 times higher than the shares of the decrease in methane emissions from abandoned underground mines and from post-mining activities, respectively.
In the European Union in 2021, the total methane emissions from surface and underground mining together amounted to 25,413.64 kt CO2 eq. (907.63 kt CH4) and included emissions from the following (Figure 9):
  • Surface mining—3887.98 kt CO2 eq. (138.86 kt CH4), or 15.3% of total emissions and including emissions from the following:
    • Mining activities—3648.95 kt CO2 eq. (130.32 kt CH4), or 14.4%;
    • Post-mining activities—239.03 kt CO2 eq. (8.54 kt CH4), or 0.9%;
  • Underground mining—21,525.66 kt CO2 eq. (768.77 kt CH4), or 84.7% of total emissions and including emissions from the following:
    • Mining activities—12,174.65 kt CO2 eq. (434.81 kt CH4), or 47.9%;
    • Abandoned underground mines—6586.30 kt CO2 eq. (235.23 kt CH4), or 25.9%;
    • Post-mining activities—2764.71 kt CO2 eq. (98.74 kt CH4), or 10.9%.
Table 7 and Table 8 compare the ratio of methane emissions from mining activities in surface lignite and underground hard coal mines (Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6) to the amount of coal produced in the EU in 2009–2021 (Table 1 and Table 2). On this basis, the average value of methane emissions (expressed in kt CO2 eq. and kt CH4) per 1 million tonnes (Mt) of coal produced in each year from 2009 to 2021 was determined. In the case of surface mines, there were 0.47–0.53 tonnes of methane emissions per 1000 tonnes of lignite produced (Table 7). In the EU, the average methane emissions per 1000 tonnes of lignite produced in surface mines in the years 2009–2021 were 0.50 tonnes (13.87 t CO2 eq.). In underground mines, there were 5.71–8.20 tonnes of methane emissions per 1000 tonnes of hard coal produced (Table 8). In the EU, the average methane emissions per 1000 tonnes of hard coal produced in underground mines in 2009–2021 were 7.08 tonnes (198.17 t CO2 eq.).
For example, Table 9 for European Union countries for 2021 compares the amount of lignite (Table 1) and hard coal (Table 2) produced in the EU, the amount of coal imported into the EU by Member States (Table 3), and the amount of methane emissions from mining activities in surface (Table 4) and underground (Table 5 and Table 6) coal mines reported in annual reports. Based on the data (Table 9), the following can be concluded:
  • The ratio of methane emissions from mining activities in coal mines to the amount of coal produced was as follows:
    • The highest in Czechia and at a similar level in Bulgaria, Greece, Poland, and Romania;
    • Very low in Hungary and Germany compared to the above-mentioned countries; it is possible that the amount of methane emissions from coal production is underestimated;
  • For Slovakia and Slovenia, the amount of lignite production was reported; there are no data on the amount of methane emissions from coal mining;
  • Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia reported methane emissions from hard coal mining; the data on coal production are not available.
There are no publicly available inventories of methane emissions from coal imports by EU Member States. EU countries have a limited capacity to monitor methane emissions from coal mining activities outside their borders. These emissions are controlled by the countries where mining takes place. Tracking methane emissions at each stage of coal transport through many countries before reaching the final recipient in the EU is complex and requires international cooperation. EU countries can work with coal-exporting countries under international climate agreements to encourage and even pressure suppliers to be transparent about reducing methane emissions from coal production and transport. Methane emissions from coal mining in exporting countries depend, among other things, on the policies and regulations in place and vary from country to country. The lack of uniform standards for reporting methane emissions and transparency can make it difficult to monitor these emissions. In addition, less stringent reporting requirements for methane emissions in some coal-exporting countries may lead to an underestimation of these emissions [6,7,33,34,35,36,37,38].

4. Conclusions

Despite the downward trend observed in both coal mining in the European Union and coal imports into the EU, coal remains an important source of energy for the Member States. This trend is the result of significant changes in the EU’s energy, economic, and environmental policies. Coal is still produced in surface and underground mines in the European Union, which are significant sources of methane emissions. These are emissions from mining activities and abandoned underground mines, as well as emissions from post-mining activities. Methane from coal mines can be a valuable alternative to electricity generation from coal combustion. In the EU in 2023, lignite mining was more than 1.5 times higher than hard coal mining and coal imports combined. This means that coal imports into Member States were almost twice as high as hard coal mining in the EU. In the European Union, methane emissions from surface lignite mining and underground hard coal mining are on a downward trend. Between 2009 and 2021, the total reduction in methane emissions from surface lignite mining is 2436 kt CO2 eq. (87 kt CH4), a decrease of 38.5%. In contrast, methane emissions from underground hard coal mining decreased by 16,518 kt CO2 eq. (590 kt CH4), a reduction of 43.4%. The share of methane emission reduction from underground mining was approximately 6.8 times higher than from surface mining, highlighting the dominant role of underground mining in methane emissions. Despite the reductions observed, methane emissions from coal mining remain a significant environmental concern, particularly in the context of the European Union’s energy transition and climate change commitments. In 2021, total methane emissions from coal mining in the EU amount to 25,414 kt CO2 eq. (908 kt CH4), with underground mining accounting for 84.7% of total emissions and surface mining for 15.3%. Among the underground mining sources, methane emissions were mainly from mining activities (47.9%), abandoned underground mines (25.9%), and post-mining activities (10.9%). Among the surface mining sources, methane emissions were mainly from mining activities (14.4%) and post-mining activities (0.9%). In the EU, between 2009 and 2021, an average of 0.50 and 7.08 tonnes of methane were emitted per 1000 tonnes of lignite and hard coal produced, respectively. A major challenge in assessing methane emissions is the inconsistency and incompleteness of the data reported by EU Member States. There are discrepancies in the estimates of methane emissions relative to coal production in different countries. Some countries of the EU reported significantly lower emissions, suggesting potential underestimates. In addition, some countries have no data at all on coal production or methane emissions. The lack of transparency in the reporting of methane emissions from imported coal further complicates the assessment of the overall climate impact of EU coal consumption. There are currently no publicly available inventories of methane emissions from imported coal, and monitoring these emissions across international supply chains remains a challenge. More emphasis should be placed in the European Union on verifying the accuracy of the data on the amount of methane emissions from coal mining, especially in situations where these data differ drastically from those reported by other EU countries. To improve the monitoring and reporting of methane emissions, the European Union must prioritise improving data accuracy, increasing transparency, and promoting international cooperation. The adoption of the EU Methane Regulation in 2024 is a step in the right direction, setting stricter monitoring requirements for methane emissions from coal mining. However, additional efforts are needed to engage with coal-exporting countries to ensure transparency in reporting emissions from coal production and transport. Furthermore, incomplete data from recent years on the amount of methane emissions from surface and underground coal mining, in particular, the amount of emissions from coal imports, make it difficult to monitor and verify these emissions. The lack of up-to-date and comprehensive data on the amount of methane emissions can make it difficult to effectively plan the European Union’s climate policy. It may also be an obstacle to achieving the EU’s climate goals, including slowing down the action to limit global warming. Future research should focus more on assessing the effectiveness of methane mitigation strategies, especially methane emissions from coal imports. In addition, research into the use of coal mine methane as an energy source could provide an alternative way of reducing methane emissions while contributing to the EU’s energy security.

Funding

This research was carried out as part of a statutory work with the number 11182011, carried out at the Central Mining Institute–National Research Institute, funded by the Polish Ministry of Education and Science.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Ember. Europe’s Electricity Transition Takes Crucial Strides Forward. 2024. Available online: https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/european-electricity-review-2024/ (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  2. Bórawski, P.; Bełdycka-Bórawska, A.; Holden, L. Changes in the Polish Coal Sector Economic Situation with the Background of the European Union Energy Security and Eco-Efficiency Policy. Energies 2023, 16, 726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Osman, A.I.; Chen, L.; Yang, M.; Msigwa, G.; Farghali, M.; Fawzy, S.; Rooney, D.W.; Yap, P.S. Cost, environmental impact, and resilience of renewable energy under a changing climate: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2023, 21, 741–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. European Commission. 2040 Climate Target. 2024. Available online: https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/climate-strategies-targets/2040-climate-target_en (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  5. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Paris Agreement. 2024. Available online: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  6. European Commission. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Methane Emissions Reduction in the Energy Sector and Amending Regulation (EU) 2019/942; COM(2021) 805 final; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  7. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Regulation (EU) 2024/1787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 on the Reduction of Methane Emissions in the Energy Sector and Amending Regulation (EU) 2019/942 (Text with EEA Relevance); European Union: Brussels, Belgium, 2024. [Google Scholar]
  8. Eurostat. Net Electricity Generation by Type of Fuel. 2024. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/NRG_CB_PEM__custom_5180368/default/table?lang=en (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  9. European Council. How Is EU Electricity Produced and Sold? 2024. Available online: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/infographics/how-is-eu-electricity-produced-and-sold/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  10. Halttunen, K.; Staffell, I.; Slade, R.; Green, R.; Saint-Drenan, Y.-M.; Jansen, M. Global Assessment of the Merit-Order Effect and Revenue Cannibalisation for Variable Renewable Energy. SSRN Electron. J. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Sensfuß, F.; Ragwitz, M.; Genoese, M. The merit-order effect: A detailed analysis of the price effect of renewable electricity generation on spot market prices in Germany. Energy Policy 2008, 36, 3086–3094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Bloomberg New Energy Finance. Emission Performance Standards. Impacts of Power Plant CO2 Emission Performance Standards in the Context of the European Carbon Market; Bloomberg New Energy Finance: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  13. Ampudia, M.; Bua, G.; Kapp, D.; Salakhova, D. The Role of Speculation During the Recent Increase in EU Emissions Allowance Prices. Issue 3. 2022. Available online: https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/economic-bulletin/focus/2022/html/ecb.ebbox202203_06~ca1e9ea13e.en.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  14. International Energy Agency. World Energy Investment 2024. 2024. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2024 (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  15. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Carbon Neutrality in the UNECE Region: Integrated Life-Cycle Assessment of Electricity Sources. 2022. Available online: https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/books/9789210014854 (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  16. Gonzalez-Salazar, M.A.; Kirsten, T.; Prchlik, L. Review of the operational flexibility and emissions of gas- and coal-fired power plants in a future with growing renewables. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 82, 1497–1513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. European Commission. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions; COM/2019/640 final; The European Green Deal: Brussels, Belgium, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  18. European Commission. The European Green Deal. A Growth Strategy That Protects the Climate. 2024. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/stories/european-green-deal/ (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  19. European Commission. Methane Emissions. 2024. Available online: https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/carbon-management-and-fossil-fuels/methane-emissions_en (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  20. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Global Warming Potential Values. 2024. Available online: https://ghgprotocol.org/sites/default/files/ghgp/Global-Warming-Potential-Values%20(Feb%2016%202016).pdf (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  21. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2013. The Physical Science Basis. In Working Group I Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2013; Available online: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/ (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  22. Macuda, J.; Baran, P.; Wagner, M. Evaluation of the Presence of Methane in Złoczew Lignite: Comparison with Other Lignite Deposits in Poland. Nat. Resour. Res. 2020, 29, 3841–3856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Sources of Coal Mine Methane. 2024. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/cmop/sources-coal-mine-methane (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  24. Swolkień, J. Polish underground coal mines as point sources of methane emission to the atmosphere. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 2020, 94, 102921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Kholod, N.; Evans, M.; Pilcher, R.C.; Roshchanka, V.; Ruiz, F.; Coté, M.; Collings, R. Global methane emissions from coal mining to continue growing even with declining coal production. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 256, 120489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Dreger, M.; Kędzior, S. Methane emissions against the background of natural and mining conditions in the Budryk and Pniówek mines in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (Poland). Environ. Earth Sci. 2021, 80, 746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Karacan, C.Ö.; Ruiz, F.A.; Cotè, M.; Phipps, S. Coal mine methane: A review of capture and utilization practices with benefits to mining safety and to greenhouse gas reduction. Int. J. Coal Geol. 2011, 86, 121–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Tutak, M.; Brodny, J. Forecasting methane emissions from hard coal mines including the methane drainage process. Energies 2019, 12, 3840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Euracoal. Coal and Lignite Production and Imports in Europe. 2024. Available online: https://euracoal.eu/info/euracoal-eu-statistics/ (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  30. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data—Comparison by Category. 2024. Available online: https://di.unfccc.int/comparison_by_category (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  31. European Commission. Emissions Monitoring & Reporting. 2024. Available online: https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/international-action-climate-change/emissions-monitoring-reporting_en (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  32. The Coal Hub. European Coal Imports Declined Sharply in 2023. 2024. Available online: https://thecoalhub.com/european-coal-imports-declined-sharply-in-2023.html (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  33. Global Methane Tracker. Strategies to Reduce Emissions from Coal Supply. 2023. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-methane-tracker-2023/strategies-to-reduce-emissions-from-coal-supply (accessed on 8 December 2024).
  34. Olczak, M.; Piebalgs, A.; Balcombe, P. Methane regulation in the EU: Stakeholder perspectives on MRV and emissions reductions. Environ. Sci. Policy 2022, 137, 314–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Zięba, M.; Skiba, J.; Kalisz, P.; Kościarz, R.; Smoliński, A. Coal mines in light of the provisions of the proposed Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the reduction of methane emissions in the energy sector, amending Regulation (EU) 2019/942. J. Sustain. Min. 2024, 23, 407–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Haidai, O.; Ruskykh, V.; Ulanova, N.; Prykhodko, V.; Cabana, E.C.; Dychkovskyi, R.; Howaniec, N.; Smolinski, A. Mine field preparation and coal mining in Western Donbas. Energy security of Ukraine—A case study. Energies 2022, 15, 4653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Urych, T.; Chećko, J.; Magdziarczyk, M.; Smolinski, A. Numerical Simulations of Carbon Dioxide Storage in Selected Geological Structures in North-Western Poland. Front. Energy Res. 2022, 10, 827794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Krauze, E.; Smoliński, A. Analysis and assessment of parameters shaping methane hazard in longwall areas. J. Sustain. Min. 2013, 12, 13–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Energies 18 00791 g001
Figure 1. Amount of lignite produced in surface mines and hard coal produced in underground mines in the European Union, and amount of coal imports to EU countries for 2009–2023. Prepared by the author, based on [29].
Figure 1. Amount of lignite produced in surface mines and hard coal produced in underground mines in the European Union, and amount of coal imports to EU countries for 2009–2023. Prepared by the author, based on [29].
Energies 18 00791 g001
Energies 18 00791 g002
Figure 2. Shares of lignite and hard coal production in the European Union and share of coal imports to the EU for 2021–2023. Prepared by the author, based on [29].
Figure 2. Shares of lignite and hard coal production in the European Union and share of coal imports to the EU for 2021–2023. Prepared by the author, based on [29].
Energies 18 00791 g002
Energies 18 00791 g003
Figure 3. Total methane emissions from surface lignite mining and underground hard coal mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Figure 3. Total methane emissions from surface lignite mining and underground hard coal mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Energies 18 00791 g003
Energies 18 00791 g004
Figure 4. Shares of methane emission reductions associated with surface and underground mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Figure 4. Shares of methane emission reductions associated with surface and underground mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Energies 18 00791 g004
Energies 18 00791 g005
Figure 5. Methane emissions from surface lignite mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Figure 5. Methane emissions from surface lignite mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Energies 18 00791 g005
Energies 18 00791 g006
Figure 6. Shares of the decrease in methane emissions from mining and post-mining activities in the total decrease in methane emissions associated with surface lignite mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Figure 6. Shares of the decrease in methane emissions from mining and post-mining activities in the total decrease in methane emissions associated with surface lignite mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Energies 18 00791 g006
Energies 18 00791 g007
Figure 7. Methane emissions from underground hard coal mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Figure 7. Methane emissions from underground hard coal mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Energies 18 00791 g007
Energies 18 00791 g008
Figure 8. Shares of the decrease in methane emissions from mining activities, abandoned underground mines, and post-mining activities in the total decrease in methane emissions associated with underground hard coal mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Figure 8. Shares of the decrease in methane emissions from mining activities, abandoned underground mines, and post-mining activities in the total decrease in methane emissions associated with underground hard coal mining in the European Union for 2009–2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Energies 18 00791 g008
Energies 18 00791 g009
Figure 9. Shares of methane emissions from surface and underground coal mining in the European Union in 2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Figure 9. Shares of methane emissions from surface and underground coal mining in the European Union in 2021. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Energies 18 00791 g009
Table 1. Amount of lignite produced in surface mines in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2023, expressed in million tonnes (Mt). Prepared by the author, based on [29].
Table 1. Amount of lignite produced in surface mines in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2023, expressed in million tonnes (Mt). Prepared by the author, based on [29].
200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020202120222023
Austria---------------
Belgium---------------
Bulgaria26.127.234.531.026.432.635.931.234.430.328.022.328.335.521.0
Croatia////-----------
Cyprus---------------
Czechia47.543.846.643.540.538.238.138.539.339.237.529.529.333.428.7
Denmark---------------
Estonia---------------
Finland---------------
France---------------
Germany175.3169.4176.5185.4182.7178.2178.1171.5171.3166.3131.3107.4126.3130.8102.3
Greece65.656.556.862.853.850.645.432.637.736.527.313.912.114.39.7
Hungary9.49.1* 11.09.29.59.59.39.28.07.96.86.15.04.94.1
Ireland---------------
Italy---------------
Latvia---------------
Lithuania---------------
Luxembourg---------------
Malta---------------
Netherlands---------------
Poland59.456.362.864.265.563.763.160.261.058.650.346.052.454.640.1
Portugal---------------
Romania32.627.032.030.222.922.024.023.025.723.521.715.017.718.214.8
Slovakia2.42.42.42.42.32.21.81.81.81.51.51.01.10.90.8
Slovenia4.04.44.54.53.93.73.23.33.43.23.13.22.62.42.4
Spain---------------
Sweden---------------
United Kingdom-----------////
Σ422.3396.1427.1433.2407.5400.7398.9371.3382.6367.0307.5244.4274.8295.0223.9
* estimates.
Table 2. Amount of hard coal produced in underground mines in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2023, expressed in million tonnes (Mt). Prepared by the author, based on [29].
Table 2. Amount of hard coal produced in underground mines in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2023, expressed in million tonnes (Mt). Prepared by the author, based on [29].
200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020202120222023
Austria---------------
Belgium---------------
Bulgaria2.73.02.42.32.1----------
Croatia////-----------
Cyprus---------------
Czechia12.611.411.311.48.68.78.26.85.54.43.42.12.21.81.4
Denmark---------------
Estonia---------------
Finland---------------
France----0.30.3---------
Germany19.112.913.011.67.57.66.74.13.92.8-----
Greece---------------
Hungary---------------
Ireland---* 0.1-----------
Italy---* 0.1<0.1<0.1---------
Latvia---------------
Lithuania---------------
Luxembourg---------------
Malta---------------
Netherlands---------------
Poland83.476.675.778.176.572.572.270.465.663.461.654.455.052.848.3
Portugal---------------
Romania2.72.22.21.91.81.51.3--0.7-----
Slovakia---------------
Slovenia---------------
Spain10.38.46.66.14.43.93.01.72.82.5-----
Sweden---------------
United Kingdom17.518.418.316.812.811.58.54.23.02.62.2////
Σ148.3132.9129.5128.4114.1106.199.987.280.876.467.256.557.254.649.7
* estimates.
Table 3. Quantity of coal imported into the countries of the European Union for 2009–2023, expressed in million tonnes (Mt). Prepared by the author, based on [29].
Table 3. Quantity of coal imported into the countries of the European Union for 2009–2023, expressed in million tonnes (Mt). Prepared by the author, based on [29].
200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020202120222023
Austria4.23.03.83.22.73.23.03.63.63.53.62.62.82.52.5
Belgium6.03.04.03.53.34.44.23.73.64.13.93.03.53.23.2
Bulgaria1.33.53.32.31.71.61.10.70.90.80.60.50.81.30.5
Croatia////1.21.01.01.20.60.50.70.60.70.60.6
Cyprus0.1--------------
Czechia2.11.92.41.52.12.92.93.13.63.83.43.34.54.43.9
Denmark7.74.56.14.05.64.52.82.93.12.82.41.10.81.91.3
Estonia0.10.1* 0.10.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1
Finland4.65.97.04.05.15.43.53.93.94.03.12.42.24.01.6
France21.418.515.317.618.914.314.313.515.713.510.47.98.77.86.4
Germany41.845.142.643.050.153.655.553.147.944.540.329.738.742.330.1
Greece0.80.60.60.10.20.20.30.30.40.40.40.30.30.1<0.1
Hungary1.91.8* 0.71.51.61.31.31.51.51.51.41.21.10.80.4
Ireland2.31.61.92.11.21.82.41.81.41.30.30.31.61.50.6
Italy26.722.724.025.922.820.019.617.915.314.110.87.27.911.87.2
Latvia0.10.1* 0.10.20.10.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1<0.1
Lithuania0.30.3* 0.30.30.40.30.30.20.30.30.30.20.20.30.1
Luxembourg---------------
Malta---------------
Netherlands12.812.811.712.412.412.412.414.516.213.010.36.08.79.06.5
Poland9.413.415.510.110.810.38.28.313.419.716.712.812.620.216.9
Portugal3.82.73.65.04.24.45.65.35.94.72.80.2<0.1<0.1<0.1
Romania3.21.01.21.30.90.71.21.00.90.91.00.70.80.60.3
Slovakia4.93.43.44.04.73.83.74.03.84.43.42.43.22.92.8
Slovenia--0.50.50.80.40.40.40.40.40.40.30.20.40.3
Spain16.512.815.321.413.114.719.014.719.215.88.54.05.39.96.8
Sweden2.43.32.72.12.52.52.73.12.72.72.32.11.71.92.0
United Kingdom43.026.531.744.849.440.625.58.38.510.16.8////
Σ217.4188.5197.8210.9215.9204.5191.1167.2173.0167.0134.089.0106.6127.794.3
* estimates.
Table 4. Methane emissions from surface lignite mining in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2021, expressed in kt CO2 equivalent. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Table 4. Methane emissions from surface lignite mining in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2021, expressed in kt CO2 equivalent. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
2009201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021
Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesMining ActivitiesPost-Mining Activities
Austria--------------------------
Belgium--------------------------
Bulgaria596.3049.69644.9553.75816.0668.00736.8661.41631.9352.66693.2857.77797.1966.43696.9958.08768.6364.05680.1356.68630.3552.53501.9841.83636.8553.07
Croatia////////------------------
Cyprus--------------------------
Czechia1681.8084.091626.7581.341736.1686.811621.2481.061501.8175.091414.6570.731412.3770.621438.0771.901467.8273.391459.1872.961397.4769.871101.9955.101098.5654.93
Denmark--------------------------
Estonia--------------------------
Finland--------------------------
France--------------------------
Germany52.32-52.18-54.36-57.11-56.27-54.88-54.84-52.84-52.76-51.21-40.44-33.07-38.89-
Greece1582.61-1378.41-1430.75-1535.37-1315.10-1240.01-1127.85-795.98-920.19-889.89-667.63-342.74-302.36-
Hungary------------2.210.210.290.030.310.030.810.082.370.230.590.060.100.01
Ireland--------------------------
Italy--------------------------
Latvia--------------------------
Lithuania--------------------------
Luxembourg--------------------------
Malta--------------------------
Netherlands--------------------------
Poland1285.62107.131272.15106.011414.68117.891447.07120.591482.39123.531438.00119.831421.14118.431356.26113.021376.85114.741318.55109.881133.0094.421035.1886.261178.6398.22
Portugal--------------------------
Romania692.0257.67636.7953.07735.9261.33706.7258.89504.9942.08487.9940.67545.5945.47494.1041.18562.6946.89520.4443.37478.1039.84328.6927.39393.5632.80
Slovakia--------------------------
Slovenia--------------------------
Spain13.424.0314.004.205.791.745.341.606.081.823.531.062.870.86--9.052.715.311.59------
Sweden-------------------------
United Kingdom117.18-123.98-125.81-120.50-102.07-94.68-69.14-49.42-35.92-32.80-29.64-////
Σ6021.27302.615749.21298.376319.53335.776230.21323.555600.64295.185427.02290.065433.20302.024883.95284.215194.22301.814958.32284.564379.00256.893344.24210.643648.95239.03
Σ6323.886047.586655.306553.765895.825717.085735.225168.165496.035242.884635.893554.883887.98
Table 5. Methane emissions from underground hard coal mining in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2015, expressed in kt CO2 equivalent. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Table 5. Methane emissions from underground hard coal mining in the countries of the European Union for 2009–2015, expressed in kt CO2 equivalent. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
2009201020112012201320142015
Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines
Austria---------------------
Belgium--51.25--50.56--49.90--49.25--48.70--48.08--47.58
Bulgaria235.7032.74159.15251.2334.89146.31294.4640.90135.41232.3232.27126.05185.7225.80117.90159.3822.14110.76150.9420.96143.06
Croatia////////////---------
Cyprus---------------------
Czechia2701.69538.16158.072777.22559.36123.082725.43550.3290.142758.90558.6088.072109.85423.6286.132183.71435.1684.442072.20412.5182.84
Denmark---------------------
Estonia---------------------
Finland---------------------
France--39.40--39.40--30.02--13.13--15.01--11.26--11.26
Germany3410.91222.0285.523433.00208.0576.713234.24194.4985.574230.01173.7079.783687.96122.0277.082872.88123.2274.283226.21100.3676.29
Greece---------------------
Hungary15.841.5850.8414.171.4249.6211.601.1638.8713.311.3338.0510.761.0837.2210.491.0536.540.360.0435.87
Ireland--24.26--23.78--23.37--22.96--22.56--22.22--21.88
Italy24.313.38-34.114.74-31.074.31-27.013.75-24.653.42-29.044.03-27.353.80-
Latvia---------------------
Lithuania---------------------
Luxembourg---------------------
Malta---------------------
Netherlands---------------------
Poland13,060.713633.72554.7012,668.633572.47523.1212,428.503548.83495.8812,186.503716.07472.3612,383.483586.26451.9312,751.173402.13433.9813,805.483385.05481.19
Portugal--20.65--20.29--19.96--19.64--19.34--19.06--18.80
Romania1061.06151.077611.21930.64133.217158.26926.88132.356845.81840.49119.686587.91762.58107.366366.11623.8588.556171.14409.2558.986202.21
Slovakia430.4543.42-388.1240.14-414.2340.12-408.2938.70-413.6239.72-389.2836.94-317.0932.747.39
Slovenia230.09102.253.38233.6098.853.19237.01100.783.02229.1191.942.86221.5474.652.72174.9358.317.49178.3059.436.52
Spain325.9697.7914.36276.6282.9913.90228.6768.6013.49179.2353.7713.11168.3850.5112.78112.4833.7425.1870.8721.2622.14
Sweden---------------------
United Kingdom2220.64243.22484.301997.89239.04488.671849.88236.51517.121922.47199.02507.641154.71132.25506.501166.50119.19490.38886.1190.04494.44
Σ23,717.365069.359257.0923,005.234975.168716.8922,381.974918.378348.5623,027.644988.838020.8121,123.254566.697763.9820,473.714324.467534.8121,144.164185.177651.47
Σ38,043.8036,697.2835,648.9036,037.2833,453.9232,332.9832,980.80
Table 6. Methane emissions from underground hard coal mining in the countries of the European Union for 2016–2021, expressed in kt CO2 equivalent. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
Table 6. Methane emissions from underground hard coal mining in the countries of the European Union for 2016–2021, expressed in kt CO2 equivalent. Prepared by the author, based on [30].
201620172018201920202021
Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines Mining ActivitiesPost-Mining ActivitiesAbandoned Underground Mines
Austria------------------
Belgium--47.07--46.06--45.59--45.12--44.67--44.22
Bulgaria91.1712.66208.5545.386.30289.2817.222.39253.96--227.84--207.54--191.19
Croatia------------------
Cyprus------------------
Czechia1662.84336.5184.961336.21269.6292.301138.70225.2092.30881.17174.4992.30521.35105.5299.64514.01106.01103.31
Denmark------------------
Estonia------------------
Finland------------------
France--11.26--11.26--11.26--11.26--11.26--1.31
Germany2581.7762.0882.312593.8259.1774.281640.2141.6772.27--72.27--70.27--66.25
Greece------------------
Hungary0.140.0135.190.040.0032.94--32.42--31.89--31.44--30.99
Ireland--21.55--20.57--20.29--20.02--19.78--19.54
Italy--27.35--14.25--11.17--9.58--8.56--7.84
Latvia------------------
Lithuania------------------
Luxembourg------------------
Malta------------------
Netherlands------------------
Poland13,859.893301.06513.7213,816.743071.01538.1913,375.882972.71599.3411,526.142890.14599.3411,850.692550.70599.3411,276.642579.80599.34
Portugal--18.54--17.84--17.62--17.40--17.20--17.00
Romania333.9848.385947.19244.9735.525781.37165.6324.805638.76127.5519.455920.67133.7920.175607.3264.1811.765453.09
Slovakia303.6631.1912.24260.0130.9713.94205.5925.3723.44227.5224.1619.97161.0016.5519.25172.8218.1421.69
Slovenia188.4562.835.81188.8662.955.27181.0460.354.84176.8858.964.49178.6659.554.19147.0049.003.94
Spain56.2216.8720.4646.9714.0919.3145.4713.6418.44--17.74--29.85--26.59
Sweden------------------
United Kingdom8.210.70501.227.570.65494.379.070.78476.8937.303.20469.89//////
Σ19,086.333872.297537.4218,540.573550.287451.2316,778.813366.917318.5912,976.563170.407559.7812,845.492752.496770.3112,174.652764.716586.30
Σ30,496.0429,542.0827,464.3123,706.7422,368.2921,525.66
Table 7. Average methane emissions per million tonnes (Mt) of lignite produced from surface mines in the EU for 2009–2021.
Table 7. Average methane emissions per million tonnes (Mt) of lignite produced from surface mines in the EU for 2009–2021.
2009201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021
Lignite production [Mt]422.3396.1427.1433.2407.5400.7398.9371.3382.6367.0307.5244.4274.8
Methane emissions from mining activities in surface mines [kt CO2 eq.]6021.275749.216319.536230.215600.645427.025433.204883.955194.224958.324379.003344.243648.95
Methane emissions from mining activities in surface mines [kt CH4]215.05205.33225.70222.51200.02193.82194.04174.43185.51177.08156.39119.44130.32
Ratio of methane emissions from mining activities in surface mines to the amount of lignite production [kt CO2 eq./Mt]14.2614.5114.8014.3813.7413.5413.6213.1513.5813.5114.2413.6813.28
Ratio of methane emissions from mining activities in surface mines to the amount of lignite production [kt CH4/Mt]0.510.520.530.510.490.480.490.470.480.480.510.490.47
Table 8. Average methane emissions per million tonnes (Mt) of hard coal produced from underground mines in the EU for 2009–2021.
Table 8. Average methane emissions per million tonnes (Mt) of hard coal produced from underground mines in the EU for 2009–2021.
2009201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021
Hard coal production [Mt]148.3132.9129.5128.4114.1106.199.987.280.876.467.256.557.2
Methane emissions from mining activities in underground mines [kt CO2 eq.]23,717.3623,005.2322,381.9723,027.6421,123.2520,473.7121,144.1619,086.3318,540.5716,778.8112,976.5612,845.4912,174.65
Methane emissions from mining activities in underground mines [kt CH4]847.05821.62799.36822.42754.40731.20755.15681.65662.16599.24463.45458.77434.81
Ratio of methane emissions from mining activities in underground mines to the amount of hard coal production [kt CO2 eq./Mt]159.93173.10172.83179.34185.13192.97211.65218.88229.46219.62193.10227.35212.84
Ratio of methane emissions from mining activities in underground mines to the amount of hard coal production [kt CH4/Mt]5.716.186.176.416.616.897.567.828.207.846.908.127.60
Table 9. Amount of lignite and hard coal production in the EU and coal imports into the EU, and amount of methane emissions from mining activities in surface and underground mines in the countries of the European Union in 2021.
Table 9. Amount of lignite and hard coal production in the EU and coal imports into the EU, and amount of methane emissions from mining activities in surface and underground mines in the countries of the European Union in 2021.
Lignite ProductionQuantities of Methane Emissions from Mining Activities in Surface MinesHard Coal ProductionQuantities of Methane Emissions from Mining Activities in Underground MinesCoal ImportsQuantities of Methane Emissions from Coal Imports
[Mt][kt CO2 eq.][Mt][kt CO2 eq.][Mt][kt CO2 eq.]
Austria----2.8?
Belgium----3.5?
Bulgaria28.3636.85--0.8?
Croatia----0.7?
Cyprus------
Czechia29.31098.562.2514.014.5?
Denmark----0.8?
Estonia----<0.1?
Finland----2.2?
France----8.7?
Germany126.338.89--38.7?
Greece12.1302.36--0.3?
Hungary5.00.10--1.1?
Ireland----1.6?
Italy----7.9?
Latvia----<0.1?
Lithuania----0.2?
Luxembourg------
Malta------
Netherlands 8.7?
Poland52.41178.6355.011,276.6412.6?
Portugal----<0.1?
Romania17.7393.56-64.180.8?
Slovakia1.1--172.823.2?
Slovenia2.6--147.000.2?
Spain----5.3?
Sweden----1.7?
Σ274.83648.9557.212174.65106.6?
?: no data.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zięba, M.; Smoliński, A. Methane Emissions from Mining in the European Union. Energies 2025, 18, 791. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040791

AMA Style

Zięba M, Smoliński A. Methane Emissions from Mining in the European Union. Energies. 2025; 18(4):791. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040791

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zięba, Magdalena, and Adam Smoliński. 2025. "Methane Emissions from Mining in the European Union" Energies 18, no. 4: 791. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040791

APA Style

Zięba, M., & Smoliński, A. (2025). Methane Emissions from Mining in the European Union. Energies, 18(4), 791. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040791

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop