Low-Carbon Hydrogen Production and Use on Farms: European and Global Perspectives

Abstract

This article examines the growing potential of low-emission hydrogen as an innovative solution supporting the decarbonization of the agricultural sector. It discusses its potential applications on farms, including as an energy source for powering agricultural machinery, producing fertilizers, and storing energy from renewable sources. Within the European context, it considers actions arising from the European Green Deal and the “Fit for 55” strategy, which promote the development of hydrogen infrastructure and support research into low-emission technologies. The article also discusses global initiatives and trends in the development of the hydrogen economy, pointing to international cooperation, investment, and the need for technology standardization. It highlights the challenges related to cost, infrastructure, and scalability, as well as the opportunities hydrogen offers for a sustainable and energy-efficient agriculture of the future.

1. Introduction

The energy transition requires replacing fossil fuels with low-carbon sources. “Low-carbon hydrogen” refers to hydrogen produced from non-renewable energy sources whose total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions achieve at least a 70% reduction compared to the fossil fuel comparator. In practice, this corresponds to a maximum emission of about 3.38 kg CO₂eq/kg H₂ [1]. Low-carbon hydrogen is intended to support the decarbonization of hard-to-electrify sectors, but it is not synonymous with zero-emission hydrogen, since all upstream and process-related emissions (including feedstock, energy supply, and methane leakage) must be fully accounted for. It forms the basis for one of the key elements of the energy transformation towards a climate-neutral economy.

Biogas plants and small hydropower plants are already well-rooted in rational resource management, in line with the philosophy of sustainable development and local agriculture. Photovoltaics and wind energy are also developing dynamically, currently leading the cost revolution. However, it should not be forgotten that their variability requires classic, stable support systems (storage or reserves). Hydrogen, as an energy carrier, has enormous potential, but currently its acquisition and, in particular, storage, is still a technological luxury, not a widely available solution.

Electricity from ground-mounted photovoltaics and ground-mounted wind farms has the lowest costs, while hydrogen from renewable energy sources, wind, and geothermal energy has the lowest emissions. Technologies related to hydrogen production and storage are more expensive but crucial for the energy transition and balancing renewable energy sources. To compare various methods of generating electricity,

Table 1. Cost and CO₂ emissions associated with different methods of generating electricity LCOE—Levelized Cost of Electricity) [2,3,4,5,6,7].

Energy Source	Average Cost LCOE [USD/MWh]	Emission CO2 [g CO2-eq/kWh]	Comments
Hydrogen (green, with renewable)	140–280	~1–5	If produced exclusively from renewable energy sources.
Biogas plant (biomethane, biogas)	55–120	10–50	Low net emissions; dependent on how the substrate is obtained
Lithium-ion batteries (storage)	120–250	~5–30	Emissions depending on the charging source and battery production process.
Photovoltaics (ground-mounted PV)	30–60	20–40	Emissions mainly related to panel production.
Photovoltaics (roof PV)	50–150	20–50	Like terrestrial PV, it depends on the scale.
Onshore wind farms	30–60	10–20	One of the lowest life cycle emissions.
Offshore wind farms	70–150	10–30	Higher material consumption results in slightly higher emissions.
Small hydroelectric power plant	45–100	1–30	Very low emissions, depending on local conditions.
Geothermal energy	40–90	5–45	Low emissions, but possible trace gas emissions from the earth’s interior.

summarizes the overall costs of electricity production and the associated CO₂ emissions.

A review of the existing literature revealed a lack of a comprehensive analysis of the European perspective on hydrogen in agriculture. Previous studies have focused on general hydrogen applications or analyzed individual countries separately. These studies primarily focused on large-scale industrial production, omitting the specifics of small and medium-sized farms. Individual barriers (economic or technical) were identified, but a holistic analysis of all aspects simultaneously was lacking. Although studies on hydrogen production from waste have existed, they have not been systematically analyzed in the context of an integrated farm energy system. Therefore, the main aim of this article is to analyze the technical, economic and regulatory aspects of the integration of hydrogen related technologies, based on a review of scientific works, recent reports of local government organizations and selected legal acts, in terms of application possibilities in agriculture.

The authors adopted a narrative and analytical literature review as their research methodology, combining elements of a systematic review with comparative analysis. The article draws on three main categories of sources: scientific articles and academic publications, reports from local government units and international organizations, and selected legal acts and strategic documents. The manuscript is structured systematically, encompassing a presentation of the global and European context (review of strategies and forecasts), an analysis of hydrogen production technologies, an assessment of the potential for its production and application in agriculture, the identification of implementation barriers and challenges, and an overview of political and financial support. Combining the analysis of theoretical perspectives with practical implementation examples allowed the formulation of conclusions regarding applications in the agricultural sector.

2. The State of Development of the Hydrogen Economy

2.1. The Context of the Global Energy Transition

Current forecasts indicate a dramatic increase in demand for low-carbon hydrogen, which is expected to reach 400 Mt per year by 2050, which is four times the current global demand for hydrogen [8,9]. The agricultural sector, responsible for approximately one-third of global green-house gas emissions, could significantly benefit from the implementation of hydrogen technologies, both in energy production and transportation applications. Innovative methods for hydrogen production using agricultural waste and renewable energy seem particularly promising, as they could significantly reduce production costs and make hydrogen an accessible energy carrier for farms of all sizes. The development of hydrogen production, storage and conversion in the agricultural sector could contribute to the decarbonization of numerous processes, from fertilizer production to powering agricultural machinery, making hydrogen a crucial element of the energy transition towards sustainable agriculture.

2.2. Analysis of the Economic Effects of Using Hydrogen Energy

Research indicates significant variation in hydrogen production costs based on the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) [3,10,11,12,13]. Alkaline electrolysis (ALK) offers the lowest costs at 3.5 USD/kg, while nuclear systems reach 8.2 USD/kg [14]. Direct coupling to renewable energy sources (4.8 USD/kg) demonstrates a 20–30% cost advantage over grid-connected systems [11,15,16].

The key economic determinant is the cost of electricity, which accounts for approximately 50% of the total LCOH, assuming a consumption of 50 kWh/kg H₂. The capacity factor of renewable sources has the greatest impact on competitiveness, followed by the capital costs of electrolyzers. Economies of scale are significant, with large systems (>10 MW) achieving costs of 3.5–4.2 USD/kg H₂, compared to 7.5–15.8 USD/kg H₂ for small installations [11,17,18].

Analysis of hydrogen storage costs shows significant differences between technologies. Underground storage in salt caverns offers the lowest costs (0.14 USD/kg H₂), while seasonal compressed hydrogen storage reaches 25.2 USD/kg H₂. Pipeline transport remains the most economical for long distances (0.25 USD/kg H₂/1000 km), surpassing road and sea transport [19,20,21].

The agricultural sector offers particularly attractive opportunities for hydrogen technologies due to the potential for integration with existing infrastructure and production processes [22,23,24,25,26,27]. The fertilizer sector offers the greatest potential for hydrogen technology implementation. Urea production using green hydrogen requires ca 800 USD/ton, compared to 450 USD/ton for conventional technologies. The break-even point occurs at a CO₂ price above 100 USD/ton. Ammonia production becomes competitive at renewable energy costs below 0.05 USD/kWh [28,29,30,31].

Integration with biogas systems demonstrates significant synergy potential, offering LCOH of 3.14 USD/kg H₂ using existing infrastructure [32]. This will reduce capital costs by 20–30%, improve energy supply stability, and generate additional revenue streams from digestate sales.

Break-even analysis indicates that, given the current cost of gray hydrogen (1.55 USD/kg) and the projected cost of green hydrogen (3.58 USD/kg by 2030), competitiveness requires a CO₂ price above 200 USD/ton. A 50% reduction in CAPEX costs by 2030 (from 800 USD/kW to 400 USD/kW) is projected, which will significantly improve economic prospects [11,12].

Summarizing the economic analysis of the impact of hydrogen technology development, its significant potential should be emphasized. Green hydrogen will achieve price parity with fossil fuels by 2030–2035, especially when external costs are taken into account. The agricultural sector can offer exceptionally attractive opportunities for early hydrogen application, particularly in the production of fertilizers and fuels. Achieving these goals requires significant investment, but generates significant macroeconomic benefits, and integration with biogas infrastructure can significantly reduce costs and accelerate development.

2.3. Global Demand for Low-Carbon Hydrogen by 2050

Global hydrogen demand in 2022 was 95 Mt, of which less than 1 million tons was low-carbon hydrogen. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), demand for low-carbon hydrogen will increase to 400 million tons by 2050, which is four times the total hydrogen demand in 2022 [8,9].

Table 2. Global low-carbon hydrogen demand forecasts by sector (Mt).

Sector	2022	2030 (Forecast)	2050 (Forecast)
Transport (including air and sea)	<1	~30	177
Chemical industry (ammonia, methanol)	<1	~20	70
Iron and steel production	<1	~10	40
Oil refining	41	~30	10
Electric power engineering	<1	~15	75
Other	<1	~5	28
Total	<1	~110 *	400

* Approximate value based on available data and proportions [8,33].

presents global low-carbon hydrogen demand forecasts by sectors.

According to the International Energy Agency’s Net Zero Emissions (NZE) scenario, achieving climate goals requires a rapid increase in low-carbon hydrogen production. By 2030, hydrogen production from electrolysis should reach about 50 Mt, while production from fossil fuels with CO₂ capture and storage (CCUS) should exceed 15 Mt, which would collectively account for about half of global hydrogen production [8,9,33].

The growth in hydrogen demand will be driven primarily by new hydrogen applications. According to IEA forecasts, in 2030, new hydrogen uses will account for approximately 80% of projected demand (around 70 million tons), and in 2050, this figure will exceed 350 Mt, or nearly 90% of total demand [9]. The use of hydrogen and ammonia in the power sector will gradually increase, serving as a low-emission system stabilizer. Low-emission hydrogen will also gain importance in the aviation and maritime sectors [8,9].

The highest demand in 2050 will be in the aviation and maritime sectors (116 Mt), electricity production (75 Mt) and chemicals (70 Mt) [8]. However, the use of hydrogen in the oil refining process will decline—from 41 Mt in 2022 to 10 Mt in 2050 [9]. The use of hydrogen will be particularly important for the effective decarbonization of those sectors of the economy whose decarbonization through direct electrification is the most difficult, and sometimes even impossible, such as maritime transport or industrial processes requiring high temperatures, for example, the steel industry [34].

2.4. European Hydrogen Initiatives—Practical Implementation and Development Strategies

2.4.1. From Strategy to Practice: Dutch Agricultural Hydrogen Model

The European Union has adopted an ambitious hydrogen strategy that aims to significantly increase renewable hydrogen production in the coming years. According to this strategy, between 2020 and 2024, the EU plans to support hydrogen electrolyzers powered by renewable energy sources with a capacity of at least 6 GW, capable of producing up to one million tons of renewable hydrogen [35,36]. In the next phase, spanning 2025–2030, hydrogen is expected to become an integral part of the integrated energy system, with electrolyzers with a capacity of at least 40 GW, producing up to 10 Mt of renewable hydrogen in the EU. Under the REPowerEU plan, the European Union projects a hydrogen demand of 20 Mt per year by 2030, of which 10 Mt would be produced from renewable sources within the EU, with the remainder imported [36,37]. To achieve these goals, the European Commission launched the European Clean Hydrogen Alliance, which brings together industry leaders and the European Investment Bank. The alliance aims to create an investment support system to develop clean hydrogen production and stimulate demand for clean hydrogen in the EU [35,36]. At the same time, the Commission is working towards introducing common standards, terminology and certification based on carbon emissions throughout the product life cycle.

Described as the “world’s living laboratory for hydrogen,” the Netherlands is actively developing and validating this green technology, building on its extensive experience in the energy sector. The country, which has one of the most advanced gas networks in the world, is leveraging its expertise in gas storage and hydrogen distribution to develop innovative solutions for agriculture [38].

A particularly important project is Fieldlab Hydrogen, in which HYGRO is conducting research into the production and application of green hydrogen based on solar and wind energy in agricultural businesses. This project focuses on investigating the feasibility of hydrogen production, storage, and distribution systems on farms. Esther Lunenborg, project manager at HYGRO, notes that: “Many agricultural businesses want to generate their own energy and often have ample space for solar panels. They don’t always have the ability to feed electricity into the grid. Hydrogen offers opportunities here” [39,40].

The recent designation of North Holland as a Hydrogen Valley has accelerated the development of hydrogen technologies in the region. North Holland’s ultimate goal is to become one of the largest hydrogen hubs in northwestern Europe by 2050. The Fieldlab project is a prime example of this ambition, bringing together agricultural entrepreneurs, research institutes, and governments to develop practical applications for hydrogen in the agricultural sector [39,41].

The Netherlands’ hydrogen strategy aims to achieve 4 GW of installed electrolyzer capacity by 2030. The Netherlands is actively pursuing the use of hydrogen in various sectors, including agriculture, where it is expected that hydrogen can play a significant role in sustainable development [40,42].

2.4.2. HyPErFarm Initiative—Belgian, Danish and German Approach to Hydrogen Farming

The HyPErFarm project is an example of international collaboration in the field of hydrogen use in agriculture. As part of this project, three European countries—Belgium, Denmark, and Germany—are conducting pilot installations demonstrating examples of energy-sufficient farms that significantly reduce the use of fossil fuels compared to conventional farms. Each location is unique in terms of climatic conditions and agrivoltaic configuration, allowing for the testing of innovative solutions in a variety of conditions [43].

In Belgium, a pilot plant is located at Transfarm KU Leuven in Lovenjoel. A 2500-square-meter area is being used to test the impact of agrovoltaics on crop yields and quality in the intensive farming system common in Western Europe. Solar energy generated by the plant is used to produce hydrogen and power a livestock building [44].

In Denmark, a pilot project is being conducted at AU Foulum. It focuses on assessing the beneficial effects of agrovoltaics on crop yield and quality in humid and windy climates. The energy used on the farm is used to power e-robotti robots, which can perform weeding and potentially eliminate the need for tractors [43].

A German pilot project located at Krinner Carport is testing three different agrophotovoltaic installations and their impact on the yield and quality of various crops under varying rainfall conditions. The energy used on the farm is used to power an electrolysis process to produce biochar as fertilizer [45].

2.4.3. Green Hydrogen Production in the Countries of South-Eastern Europe and the Black Sea Basin

Countries like Serbia, Romania, and Ukraine, demonstrate significant potential for green hydrogen production due to their abundant renewable energy resources. Serbia has significant renewable energy potential, particularly solar and wind power, which are key to green hydrogen production. The assessment of Serbia’s green hydrogen potential, fueled by over 24 GWp of solar power and approximately 11 GWp of wind power, highlights the country’s ability to harness renewable resources, with hydrogen production expected to increase from approximately 2 Mt in 2019 to nearly 40 Mt by 2040 [46]. Other scientists point to the decisive role of Ukraine, Moldova, Romania and Azerbaijan in the competition for primacy in scientific studies on green hydrogen [47]. They pay particular attention to parameters that determine the feasibility of solving the global energy problem, such as terrain, ecological and climatic features, and the availability and use of significant amounts of fresh surface water. Areas identified by the Ukrainian Geological Company for energy and green hydrogen facilities include the Danube-Peddobrudzha region (Ukraine, Moldova, and Romania), the Lower Dnieper River, the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone (Pripyat River), Transcarpathia (the Latoritsa and Tisza river basins), and Azerbaijan (the Kura and Araks river basins, and the marine waters of the Kyzylagat Marine Reserve). It should be noted that the availability of water resources, solar and wind energy, and the use of global experience in hydrogen production will save agricultural land and contribute to the region’s energy independence [47]. Ukraine is considered a strategic partner in the European Commission’s hydrogen initiatives, with plans to develop up to 10 GW of electrolysis capacity by 2030. This capacity will primarily support the production of green ammonia, a key raw material for the agro-industrial sector, and contribute to the decarbonization of Ukraine’s economy [47,48].

2.4.4. Poland’s Position on the European Hydrogen Market

Poland ranks third among hydrogen producers in the European Union, giving it a strong base for the development of hydrogen technologies, including in the agricultural sector. It is worth noting that half of the hydrogen produced in Poland is produced in Grupa Azoty factories, primarily from natural gas, as a byproduct of ammonia synthesis [49,50].

In 2020, Grupa Azoty was among the signatories of a letter of intent establishing a partnership to build a national hydrogen economy and concluding a sectoral hydrogen agreement. In Poland, according to a report presented at the third edition of HYDROGENCONFERENCE.PL, demand for renewable hydrogen (Renewable Fuel of Non-Biological Origin—RFNBO) in 2030 could reach approximately 223,000 tons in the baseline scenario and approximately 270,000 tons in the extended scenario and in 2035 even 514,500 tons [51,52].

Table 3. Projected demand for renewable hydrogen in Poland by 2030 (t) [51].

Sector	Baseline Scenario (t)	Extended Scenario (t)
Industrial	190,000	211,000
Transport	6900	22,000
Total	223,000	245,000

presents the base and extended demands for renewable hydrogen in the nearest years in Poland in tones.

Achieving Poland’s renewable hydrogen production goals will require significant investments in renewable energy sources. According to the report, producing the required hydrogen volumes for the RFNBO in 2030 will require investments of PLN 46.4–51.2 billion in photovoltaics, PLN 32.2–35.7 billion in onshore wind farms, or PLN 37.2–40.8 billion in offshore wind farms [51].

Wielkopolska, as one of the Polish regions actively developing hydrogen technologies, has the potential to produce approximately 500,000 tons of low-emission hydrogen annually. The Wielkopolska Hydrogen Development Strategy assumes that the production volume of low-emission hydrogen in the region will reach nearly 40,000 tons in 2030 and over 150,000 tons in 2040 [53].

As the third largest hydrogen producer in the European Union, Poland is in a strong position to develop hydrogen technologies, including in the agricultural sector. Poland produces 1.3 Mt of hydrogen annually, which accounts for 13% of the EU’s annual production [54,55]. Currently, most of this production consists of gray hydrogen, derived from hydrocarbons, produced and used by industry. Planned investments focus on blue hydrogen, derived from carbon dioxide, and also include the production of green hydrogen from renewable energy sources [52,54,56].

Annual hydrogen demand in Poland could exceed 100 TWh by 2040. However, the current pace and plans for renewable energy development do not provide a chance of meeting future demand. Barriers must be removed and incentives for the development of renewable energy sources, particularly wind energy, which will be the foundation of a hydrogen economy, must be introduced. Achieving these ambitions requires over 60 GW of renewable energy generation by 2040 [37,56].

2.5. The Role of Low-Emission Hydrogen in Decarbonizing the Economy

Agriculture, as one of the sectors generating significant greenhouse gas emissions, faces the challenge of transforming towards more sustainable practices. Low-carbon hydrogen can play a significant role in this process, offering solutions for both transportation and energy and fertilizer production. One of the main environmental problems related to agriculture is water quality, which is largely the result of agricultural practices—chemicals, including pesticides, significantly deteriorate water quality. Chemicals used in agriculture, particularly artificial fertilizers, contribute to algal blooms in water bodies. As Robert Czerniawski from the University of Szczecin emphasizes: “There are no reservoirs in Europe that could cause such intense algal blooms as we are now seeing without the influence of agriculture and the nutrients we supply. Nature is unable to generate such large amounts of nutrients” [57]. Fertilizer production based on low-emission hydrogen could help reduce agriculture’s carbon footprint while maintaining production efficiency [58].

Low-emission hydrogen is seen as a key solution in the process of decarbonizing the economy. The basic assumption behind using hydrogen to decarbonize the economy is that it will be produced without CO₂ emissions, and its applications will be much broader than before [59].

An international team of scientists, led by experts from the University of Amsterdam, concluded that electrification will be the most cost-effective path for most economic sectors, with an average share of around 60% of final energy consumption. They predict that the projected share of direct hydrogen use will not exceed 10%. “Our research shows that electrification based on renewable energy sources will most likely be the most cost-effective path to decarbonizing most economic sectors. For the first time, we present a rationale and quantification of the role of direct hydrogen use as an alternative clean fuel. Our projected share of 6–10% is relatively small. However, we see a key role for hydrogen in specific decarbonization pathways, especially in heavy industry and transport” [60]. This means that decarbonization strategies should focus on electrification in most sectors, with hydrogen being treated as a complementary solution, especially in areas where electrification is difficult to achieve.

3. Low-Emission Hydrogen Production Methods

3.1. Definition of Low-Carbon Hydrogen

Hydrogen as an energy carrier can be produced using various methods, each with varying levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Low- and zero-emission methods are particularly important in the context of agricultural applications, allowing for a real reduction in the sector’s carbon footprint. Currently, the dominant hydrogen production relies on fossil fuels—steam reforming of natural gas, coal gasification, and crude oil reforming—which accounts for approximately 98% of global production. This hydrogen, known as “gray” hydrogen, is characterized by high CO₂ emissions, ranging from 9 to 20 kg per kilogram of product. Low-emission hydrogen encompasses technologies that reduce CO₂ emissions by ≥70% compared to fossil fuels [50,61]. According to the definition adopted in the European Union’s hydrogen strategy, low-emission hydrogen is one whose production resulted in CO₂ emissions of no more than 3.38 kg CO₂/kg H₂ over the product’s entire life cycle [1]. Both hydrogen produced from natural gas using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology and hydrogen produced using nuclear energy can meet this definition [59,62].

Low-carbon hydrogen can be produced in several ways. “Blue hydrogen” is produced from fossil fuels using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, which reduces emissions to 1.5–4.5 kg of CO₂ per kilogram of product. However, the most desirable is “green hydrogen,” produced by water electrolysis using electricity from renewable sources, which generates no CO₂ emissions.

The European Union projects a hydrogen demand of 20 Mt per year by 2030, of which 10 Mt will be produced from renewable sources within the EU, with the remainder imported. To this end, approximately 120 GW of electrolyzer capacity is planned to be installed by the end of the decade [63,64]. It is important to note that producing 10 million tons of renewable hydrogen in the EU will require around 500 TWh of renewable energy. This amount of electricity is equivalent to the amount of energy generated by all installed wind farms (onshore and offshore) in the EU-27 and the UK in 2021 [64].

3.2. Electrolysis Using Renewable Energy

The dynamic growth in hydrogen demand opens significant opportunities for the agricultural sector to adopt hydrogen technologies. This is an area where green hydrogen, produced through water electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources, will find its place. Energy from photovoltaics or wind turbines can power electrolyzers, producing zero-emission hydrogen. Such systems have an efficiency of 50–60%, with a demand of ~50 kWh/kg H₂ [50,65,66]. On farms, photovoltaic panels mounted on the roofs of infrastructure facilities could cover approximately 30–50% of the energy demand for electrolysis [67,68]. This method is particularly beneficial for the agricultural and livestock sector, although it requires significant amounts of properly prepared water [69,70].

Electrolysis is therefore one of the simplest and at the same time the most widespread methods of obtaining hydrogen and oxygen with an exceptionally high degree of purity—in the case of hydrogen exceeding 99.9%, where the biggest challenge is the slow oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at the anode, which is responsible for about 90% of the energy consumption of the entire process [71]. Research on water electrolysis electrodes is currently focused on developing efficient, durable, and economical materials that can replace expensive noble metals such as platinum and iridium. One direction is the use of transition metal-based composites, such as sulfurized vanadium-based metal–organic frameworks combined with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (S@V-MOF/MWCNTs), which offer excellent activity for both hydrogen evolution (HER) and oxygen evolution (OER) reactions, as well as long-term stability [72]. The choice of electrode material depends on the electrolyzer type (alkaline, PEM, AEM) and the desired properties: low overvoltage, durability, and production costs. An integrated approach to electrode design, cell architecture, and compatibility with renewable energy sources makes water electrolysis a cornerstone of the energy transition toward a hydrogen economy [50,73].

Despite its many advantages, a significant drawback of electrolysis remains its relatively low energy efficiency. Even with modern electrolyzers, such as PEM (proton exchange membrane) or alkaline electrolyzers, it ranges between 60 and 70%, meaning energy consumption can exceed 50 kWh/kg H₂ under typical operating conditions [50,74].

Table 4. Comparison of electrolyzer technologies [75,76,77].

Electrolyzer Type	Advantages	Challenges
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)	High efficiency, scalability, and suitability for large-scale applications.	Expensive due to precious metal catalysts; prone to degradation.
Alkaline Electrolyzer	Lower cost of materials compared to PEM; well-established technology.	Lower efficiency, larger footprint, and sensitivity to impurities in feedwater.
Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM)	Potential for lower costs and higher efficiency in the future.	Limited field data and operational experience; durability concerns.

presents the comparison of electrolyzer technologies.

Advanced approaches, such as combining the hydrogenation reaction with the oxidation of organic molecules (e.g., HMF or urea) instead of the traditional oxygen evolution reaction, can significantly reduce the overall energy consumption by reducing the required voltage from the typical 1.7–1.8 V to around 1.5 V, which translates into a drop in energy consumption to less than 45 kWh/kg H₂ [78]. The final energy requirement also depends on water quality, operating temperature, and the catalysts used, which influence reaction resistance and overall system efficiency. However, the development of new catalytic materials and hybrid electrolysis systems may enable more energy-efficient hydrogen production from electrochemical water splitting in the future [72,73].

3.3. Steam Reforming of Biogas and Biomethane

Currently, the dominant hydrogen production is based on fossil fuels—steam reforming of natural gas, coal gasification, and crude oil reforming—which accounts for approximately 98% of global production. This hydrogen, known as “gray,” is characterized by high emissions. “Blue hydrogen” is produced from fossil fuels using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, which reduces emissions to 1.5–4.5 kg of CO₂ per kilogram of product [67]. Biogas from agricultural waste (manure, plant residues) contains 50–70% methane, which is converted to H₂ in the Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) process. CCS reduces emissions to 1.5 kg CO₂ eq/kg H₂ [59,65,79].

SMR and its equivalent for biomethane are the most commonly used industrial processes for producing synthesis gas (syngas), which consists primarily of hydrogen (H₂) and carbon monoxide (CO), which is the basis for producing hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol. The SMR process involves the reaction of methane with steam at high temperatures (approximately 700–1100 °C) and in the presence of a nickel catalyst, leading to an endothermic reaction: CH₄ + H₂O → CO + 3H₂ (ΔH° = +206 kJ/mol), requiring a significant amount of energy [80].

Biomethane, a renewable alternative to natural gas, can be processed using the same process, with differences primarily due to the presence of contaminants typical of biogas, such as hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), which require additional purification. A key advantage of biomethane reforming is its carbon neutrality, as the emitted CO₂ comes from biomass rather than fossil fuels. Integrated processes such as tri-reforming (combining SMR, dry reforming, and partial oxidation) offer the ability to simultaneously process CH₄, CO₂, and O₂, increasing energy efficiency and tailoring the H₂/CO ratio in syngas to specific applications, such as methanol production [80]. Technically, SMR remains a process requiring high energy input, which is its main disadvantage, but the development of new catalysts and heat recovery systems significantly increases its efficiency and environmental friendliness in the context of energy transformation [81].

3.4. Biomass Fermentation, Pyrolysis and Gasification

In agricultural conditions, hydrogen can be produced from animal manure, agricultural crops and food waste through the process of anaerobic fermentation [82,83,84]. Anaerobic fermentation (e.g., dark fermentation) involves the biological decomposition of biomass by microorganisms under anaerobic conditions at a temperature of 30–60 °C, which leads to the formation of hydrogen and organic acids and makes lignocellulosic waste a potential source of hydrogen [85,86].

First, biochar is produced, which can be obtained from various agricultural wastes, such as sugarcane husks, hemp waste, and animal manure. Particularly good results have been achieved using biochar based on cow dung, which significantly reduces electricity demand.

The hydrogen production process using biochar begins with preparing a slurry by mixing agricultural waste with sulfuric acid. The prepared biochar slurry is then used in an electrolysis cell, where it aids in the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen. The entire process can be powered by solar energy, further reducing its carbon footprint. This technology is particularly important for farms, which can use their own organic waste to produce clean hydrogen, becoming partially energy self-sufficient [82]. Photofermentation, involving purple bacteria, can increase hydrogen production efficiency by harnessing sunlight [84].

Agricultural waste can also be converted into hydrogen using thermochemical methods such as pyrolysis, gasification, and supercritical water gasification (SCWG) [87]. Unlike fermentation, biomass gasification is a high-temperature process (700–1000 °C) conducted in the absence of oxygen or air. Lignocellulosic biomass (e.g., straw, sawdust) is converted into syngas containing hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane. Subsequently, the water shift reaction (WGS) allows for an increase in hydrogen content through the conversion of CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂ [88,89,90].

Pyrolysis, on the other hand, involves the decomposition of biomass under anaerobic conditions at temperatures of 300–600 °C, producing bio-oil, gas, and charcoal. The gaseous pyrolysis products contain small amounts of hydrogen, which can be recovered in subsequent stages, such as reforming or steam reforming of the resulting bio-oil. The pyrolysis rate significantly influences the composition of the bio-oil and its suitability for steam reforming. Fast pyrolysis tends to produce bio-oil with a higher volatile fraction, which is more susceptible to conversion to hydrogen. For example, fast pyrolysis of pine sawdust resulted in bio-oil that, when reformed, produced hydrogen-rich syngas efficiently [91]. Furthermore, fast pyrolysis of biomass generally results in bio-oil with lower oxygen and water content, increasing its reforming potential [92,93].

For example, Fahmi et al. (2008) showed that fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass produces significant amounts of bio-oil and syngas containing light hydrocarbons and small amounts of hydrogen, which can be enhanced by catalytic post-treatment [94]. Steam reforming of bio-oil is an effective method for producing hydrogen-rich syngas, providing high conversion efficiency. For example, using La1-xKxMnO₃ perovskite catalysts, a hydrogen yield of 72.5% was achieved under optimal conditions (800 °C, WCMR = 3) [91]. Similarly, Fang et al. (2022) reported that reforming bio-oil over Ni-based catalysts at elevated temperatures significantly increases hydrogen yield, making this route attractive for sustainable H₂ production [91,95,96].

These findings highlight the potential of integrated pyrolysis-reforming systems as viable pathways to decentralized hydrogen production from biomass, especially when using advanced catalysts and process intensification techniques [95,97]. Each method has unique advantages: gasification provides the highest hydrogen yield, fermentation allows for the use of wet organic waste, and pyrolysis offers versatile use of byproducts. These processes are characterized by high hydrogen production efficiency and support waste recycling [98]. However, the joint gasification of biomass and sewage sludge using steam at high temperatures allows for obtaining hydrogen-rich gas, which optimizes the use of agricultural residues [99].

4. The Potential of Low-Emission Hydrogen Production on Farms

4.1. Low-Emission Hydrogen Production in the Context of Agriculture

In the context of agriculture, local production solutions are particularly important, enabling farms to achieve partial energy self-sufficiency. A promising direction is hydrogen production using agricultural waste and renewable energy, which can significantly reduce production costs and make hydrogen an accessible solution for farms of all sizes. The average farm in the EU produces approximately 500 tons of biomass (straw, wood waste) annually, which allows for the production of 5 to 7.5 tons of hydrogen per year [53,67]. For example, biogas obtained from the fermentation of 1000 m³ of manure provides 200 kg to 300 kg of hydrogen [65].

Research conducted at the University of Illinois at Chicago has led to the development of a hydrogen production method using agricultural waste and solar energy. This technology uses biochar to support electrolysis, allowing for significant energy savings. Furthermore, it can be implemented on a variety of scales, from small households to large industrial installations [100]. Reducing energy demand by 600% compared to traditional electrolysis makes it particularly attractive for farms with limited access to a high-capacity electricity grid [100].

Hydrogen production from local renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic systems, can provide energy autonomy and reduce dependence on grid electricity. This is particularly beneficial in rural areas with abundant renewable resources but limited grid infrastructure [50]. Small PEM electrolyzers (5–50 kW) with a capacity of 1–10 kg H₂/day are compatible with photovoltaic farms [66,101], while biomass gasification systems (e.g., GEK Gasifier) achieve an efficiency of 65–75% at a power of 100 kW [53].

Table 5. Comparison of hydrogen production types for agricultural applications [12,70,102].

Production Type	Emissions CO2 [kg/kg H2]	Advantages for Agriculture	Challenges
Electrolysis from renewable energy sources (green hydrogen)	0	Zero emissions, possibility of local production	High initial costs, water availability
Electrolysis with biochar	0	Utilization of agricultural waste, lower energy consumption	Required biochar processing technology
SMR with CCS (blue hydrogen)	1.5–4.5	Lower costs than green hydrogen	CCS infrastructure needed, local production impossible
Methane Pyrolysis (Turquoise Hydrogen)	0	Coal production as a by-product	Early stage of development

presents the comparison of hydrogen production methods for agricultural applications.

4.2. Low-Carbon Hydrogen Applications in Agriculture

Low-carbon hydrogen offers a wide range of applications in the agricultural sector, which can contribute to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The use of hydrogen in agriculture fits into a broader energy transition strategy and can encompass aspects related to both transportation and power and heat production. Hydrogen can be used as a clean energy source in various agricultural applications, including machinery operation, decentralized energy systems, and modern irrigation techniques. Irrigation systems powered by hydrogen fuel cells can ensure a more sustainable water supply for crops, reducing dependence on fossil fuels. This is particularly important in the context of rising energy costs and the growing awareness of the need to reduce the carbon footprint of agricultural production and mitigate the impact on climate change [103]. US Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack recently emphasized that “the development of renewable energy represents a huge economic opportunity for rural areas” [104].

4.2.1. Drive of Agricultural Machines and Vehicles

In the field of agricultural transport, hydrogen can be used as fuel for agricultural machinery and vehicles, such as tractors and combine harvesters. Hydrogen-powered tractors offer numerous benefits, including zero CO₂ emissions during operation, quiet operation, and low operating costs [50,105,106,107]. Hydrogen fuel cells are a clean alternative to diesel generators, ensuring high efficiency in converting the energy contained in hydrogen into mechanical energy and reducing environmental pollution [108]. Compared to battery-powered electric vehicles, agricultural machines powered by hydrogen fuel cells are characterized by longer operating times and shorter refueling/charging times, which is important during intensive periods of field work [105,106]. Hydrogen tractors (e.g., New Holland NH2TM based on the T6.140 tractor) offer a range of up to 300 km on a single refueling, emitting only water vapor [61,104,109]. For example, the Fendt Helios tractor uses a 100 kW fuel cell and a 25 kWh buffer battery. Roof-mounted hydrogen tanks hold up to 21 kg of hydrogen at 700 bar pressure [110]. The tractor in question is part of a larger project, the H2Agrar project, the aim of which is to research and create a hydrogen infrastructure for agriculture in the Emsland model region in Germany [111,112]. Similar work is also being carried out by other agricultural machinery manufacturers such as Massey Ferguson and Steyer [113,114].

Figure 1 presents model of the project H2Agrar.

4.2.2. Heating of Farm Buildings

Another area of hydrogen use on farms is energy and heat production. Hydrogen fuel cells can serve as a stable energy source for farms, especially in areas with limited access to the electricity grid. Furthermore, hydrogen can be used in post-harvest processes, such as drying and cooling grain. Hydrogen generators provide a reliable and efficient heat source for these purposes [115].

4.2.3. Fertilizer Production

The global demand for nitrogen-based fertilizers is significant, with consumption expected to grow by 1% to 166.8 million metric tons in 2006 [116]. This demand is driven by the need to enhance agricultural productivity to meet the food requirements of a growing population. Europe is characterized by high nitrogen use due to its dense population and substantial food demand, despite a declining economic share of agriculture [117]. China is the largest producer and consumer of nitrogen fertilizers, significantly impacting global nitrogen fertilizer dynamics [118,119].

Integrating hydrogen production with renewable energy sources can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions in another application area. For example, using hydrogen in the production of ammonia and nitrogen fertilizers could contribute to the decarbonization of this sector, which is a major source of CO₂ emissions [69,120,121]. Green ammonia (NH₃) produced from H₂ and atmospheric nitrogen could replace synthetic fertilizers, which account for 1.4% of global CO₂ emissions [119,122]. Currently, nitrogen fertilizer production relies primarily on hydrogen obtained from fossil fuels. This hydrogen is combined with nitrogen from the air to create ammonia, the primary ingredient in nitrogen fertilizers [123]. Using low-emission hydrogen in this process can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of fertilizer production, which is particularly important considering that the fertilizer sector is one of the largest consumers of hydrogen in Europe [8,124].

Using agricultural waste to produce hydrogen supports the circular economy by transforming waste into a valuable resource. This approach not only reduces waste disposal issues but also provides a sustainable energy source [85,86].

4.2.4. Energy Storage and Grid Stabilization

Energy storage and grid stabilization are crucial for integrating renewable energy sources (RES) in rural areas. Renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, are volatile and unpredictable, creating challenges for grid stability [68,125,126,127]. Seasonal variations in renewable energy production require effective storage solutions to balance supply and demand [128,129]. Hydrogen production and storage offer solutions for improving the sustainability of renewable energy systems. Power to Hydrogen (P2H) involves converting excess electricity into hydrogen, which can be stored and then converted back into electricity or used directly [126,129]. Hydrogen can be stored in various forms, including underground storage, which is key for large-scale and long-term energy storage [128].

5. Integrated Challenges, Opportunities, and Support Mechanisms for Agricultural Hydrogen Systems

5.1. Durability of Electrolyzers

One of the primary technical challenges is the durability of electrolyzers, which are critical for hydrogen production. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) and Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) electrolyzers are prone to degradation due to operational stress, such as fluctuating power inputs and impurities in the feedwater. Field data and studies on degradation patterns are essential to develop countermeasures and improve the lifespan of these systems [76,77]. Additionally, the development of cost-effective and sustainable electrocatalysts is crucial to enhance the efficiency and scalability of electrolyzers [76].

Cell degradation occurs after approximately 2000–3000 h of operation, especially in variable RES conditions. Mechanical degradation of cell components, such as the proton exchange membrane (PEM), is a major issue. The stress–strain response of these components varies due to their distinct deformation mechanisms and morphologies, leading to mechanical failure over time [130]. The transient characteristics of electrolyzers, including the shutdown process, reflect electrochemical processes similar to those in fuel cells. Low-voltage sustenance following shutdown may positively affect durability [131]. The degradation of the membrane close to the anode catalyst layer, particularly under dynamic operation, leads to significant resistive losses [132]. Power fluctuations from renewable sources like wind and solar power significantly impact the performance and lifespan of electrolyzers. For instance, the attenuation rate under fluctuating photovoltaic conditions is twice that under constant current conditions, primarily due to increased charge transfer impedance and metal ion pollution [133]. The random fluctuations of renewable energy sources present a challenge to the stable and reliable operation of electrolyzers, leading to performance degradation [134]. Gas crossover across the diaphragm between the cathode and anode, especially under variable power conditions, can be mitigated using novel designs like supercapacitor-isolated systems, which show improved durability [135]. Stack design and operating parameters, such as temperature and pressure, significantly affect the performance and durability of PEM electrolyzers. Novel stack designs and regulated operating parameters can enhance durability [136]. Moreover, implementing protective strategies, such as applying a protective voltage during the “off” state, can alleviate galvanic corrosion and extend the stability of the electrolyzer [137].

Table 6. Factors affecting electrolyzer durability and ways to improve it [130,132,134,135,136,137].

Factor	Impact on Durability	Mitigation Strategies
Degradation	Stress–strain response variability leading to mechanical failure	Improved material design and cell assembly strategies
Electrochemical Degradation	Resistive losses due to membrane degradation	Low-voltage sustenance post-shutdown, protective voltage application
Power Fluctuations	Increased charge transfer impedance and metal ion pollution	Optimized operating conditions and fluctuation management
Gas Crossover	Reduced efficiency and increased degradation	Supercapacitor-isolated systems
System Design and Parameters	Ohmic and mass losses, temperature and pressure effects	Novel stack designs, regulated operating parameters

presents main factors affecting electrolyzers’ durability.

5.2. Economic Analysis and Production Costs of Hydrogen

High capital and operating expenses represent one of the most significant barriers to deploying hydrogen technologies in agriculture. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzers are expensive due to their reliance on precious metal electrocatalysts, and their production costs remain higher than those of conventional hydrogen generation methods [75,76]. Similarly, steam methane reforming (SMR) currently produces hydrogen at 1–2 USD/kg, depending on natural gas prices and CCS expenses, whereas green hydrogen from water electrolysis costs 5–8 USD/kg, driven by electricity prices and electrolyzer efficiency [138,139].

China, which accounts for approximately 60% of global electrolyzer manufacturing capacity, is projected to see electrolytic hydrogen become less expensive than coal-based hydrogen by 2030 due to declining equipment costs and improved process efficiencies [140]. In agricultural settings, high upfront expenditures can be mitigated via shared-plant models in which multiple farms co-invest in and jointly operate an electrolyzer, thereby lowering per-farm CAPEX and shortening payback periods [141]. Additional revenue streams—such as land lease fees for wind farms or carbon credit programs—can further improve local hydrogen production economics [141,142].

Long-term cost projections indicate a substantial decline in unit production costs over the coming decade. By 2030, average green hydrogen costs are expected to fall by roughly 50%, reaching 1.7–3.75 USD/kg [143]. Hybrid systems that combine wind and solar power are forecast to achieve production costs of 2.13–1.42 USD/kg, contingent on plant scale and reactor design [144]. Continued reductions in renewable electricity prices and advancements in electrode and catalyst materials will drive further decreases in hydrogen production costs [145,146].

Hydrogen production technologies based on the use of agricultural waste can also contribute to reducing the local costs of hydrogen production on farms [70]. Economic performance can be enhanced by integrating hydrogen production into local energy systems. Selling excess electricity, utilizing waste heat from electrolysis, and coupling hydrogen generation with on-farm renewable assets reduce overall OPEX and CAPEX for rural hydrogen projects [143,146].

5.3. Legal Framework and Hydrogen Certification Standards

Hydrogen systems demand stringent safety protocols due to the flammable and leak-prone nature of hydrogen, making compliance with industry regulations a critical challenge. Farms engaged in on-site hydrogen production and storage must implement comprehensive safety management systems, adhere to equipment certification requirements, and conduct detailed risk assessments to mitigate potential accidents [147,148]. Despite these obligations, existing regulatory frameworks frequently lack standardized procedures for risk analysis, leading to gaps in Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) methodologies and inconsistencies in data collection and hazard modeling tools [148,149,150].

Concurrently, certification schemes for renewable hydrogen are evolving to ensure market transparency and guarantee low-carbon credentials. Key certification systems—such as the Green Hydrogen Organization (GH2), A-GO, and CertifHy—provide labels and verification protocols focused primarily on greenhouse gas emissions from electricity inputs [151,152]. These methodologies assess carbon intensity, but often omit broader sustainability criteria, including water footprint, social impacts, and governance practices [151,153].

The convergence of regulatory safety requirements with certification standards is essential: robust legal mandates for equipment and process safety must be aligned with verifiable green-hydrogen labels to foster stakeholder confidence and enable hydrogen’s integration into agricultural value chains. Harmonized QRA guidelines, standardized safety certification for storage and transport infrastructure, and expanded sustainability metrics within renewable-hydrogen certification frameworks will collectively strengthen the legal foundation for hydrogen deployment on farms and in rural communities.

5.4. Hydrogen Infrastructure and Rural System Planning

The successful integration of hydrogen into agricultural and rural energy systems depends on robust storage, transport, and microgrid planning strategies. Building appropriate infrastructure for hydrogen storage and distribution is a significant technical challenge, requiring high capital investment and careful site selection [154]. Compressed hydrogen demands heavy, high-pressure tanks, while liquid hydrogen necessitates energy-intensive liquefaction processes and cryogenic storage [155,156]. Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) in salt caverns, depleted oil reservoirs, or aquifers offers promising scale and safety benefits, but geological suitability and hydrogen migration risks must be rigorously assessed [150,157]. Salt caverns—naturally occurring or excavated in rock salt or calcium layers—provide high safety margins and environmental compatibility [54].

Given infrastructure limitations, planning off-grid or semi-grid rural energy communities around hydrogen systems can enhance reliability and resilience. Risk-based planning methods for multi-energy, off-grid hydrogen microgrid systems combine local renewables (e.g., solar PV, wind) with electrolyzers and fuel cells to ensure continuous power supply in remote areas [158]. Such systems require seven key planning steps: resource assessment, system sizing, equipment selection, safety analysis, cost–benefit evaluation, regulatory compliance, and stakeholder engagement [159]. Integrating storage, production, and distribution facilities into a unified microgrid enables load balancing, peak shaving, and emergency backup while mitigating intermittent renewable output through hydrogen buffering.

A comprehensive analysis of hydrogen value chain installations in rural settings underscores the importance of adaptive guidelines tailored to local conditions. These guidelines address limited infrastructure, low demand density, and the need for seamless integration with existing agricultural operations [159]. By combining infrastructure development—such as decentralized salt-cavern storage or modular aboveground tanks—with microgrid planning frameworks, rural stakeholders can optimize system performance, reduce transport logistics, and enhance the economic viability of hydrogen-based energy solutions.

5.5. Environmental, Social Impacts, and Rural Energy Community Development

Meeting the growing demand for low-carbon hydrogen in agriculture requires addressing both environmental resource constraints and community acceptance, while leveraging the strengths of rural energy communities. Underground storage and transportation infrastructure carry environmental risks—including methane emissions from UHS facilities—and must be managed through robust site characterization and monitoring protocols [157]. Green hydrogen production via water electrolysis is environmentally preferable but demands substantial water and electricity inputs. In case of Poland achieving in 2030 the renewable hydrogen target will necessitate roughly 11.6–12.8 GW of PV, 4.6–5.1 GW of onshore wind, or 3.1–3.4 GW of offshore wind capacity, typically in mixed portfolios [51,76,160]. Investments in hydrogen technologies can stimulate the development of the agricultural sector by creating new economic opportunities in rural areas. According to European Union estimates, by 2030, the development of the hydrogen production sector will create 10,000 jobs for every billion euros invested [34]. This potential can also be tapped in the agricultural sector, creating new jobs and diversifying farm income sources.

Social acceptance is equally pivotal: farmers and local stakeholders often harbor safety and reliability concerns, necessitating participatory decision-making, targeted education, and transparent risk communication to foster trust [159]. Global studies estimate that without land or water constraints, at most 50% of 2050 hydrogen demand can be met by local electrolysis, indicating potential reliance on wastewater reuse or international supply chains [69,161,162]. Regions abundant in land and water—such as parts of Africa, South America, Canada, and Australia—could evolve into major hydrogen exporters or attract electrolytic industries, complementing domestic agricultural applications [161].

Integrating hydrogen within rural energy communities enhances both environmental and social outcomes. A review of 86 studies on renewable-energy communities reveals a focus on biomass (48%), solar (44%), wind (15%), and geothermal (7%); scalability and replicability (R² = 0.77) emerge as critical for sustainable growth [163]. During early development, community engagement and flexible infrastructure design underpin success, shifting later toward scalable models that balance local resource use with supply reliability [163]. By embedding hydrogen production, storage, and utilization within rural energy community frameworks, stakeholders can optimize resource allocation, mitigate intermittency through shared hydrogen buffering, and foster socioeconomic benefits in tandem with environmental stewardship.

5.6. Financial Support and Development Programs for Hydrogen Technologies

Government subsidies and funding programs play a crucial role in reducing hydrogen production costs and accelerating market deployment. System-dynamics modeling of the Chinese hydrogen market demonstrates that production subsidies can lower hydrogen prices by 0.55–2.50 USD/kg, while targeted rural development programs reduce costs by 1.00–2.00 USD/kg for agricultural applications [163,164,165]. Techno-economic assessments of hybrid renewable-hydrogen systems reveal that integrating solar energy with hydrogen storage not only enhances system feasibility in remote regions but, with appropriate subsidies, can achieve cost-effective power and fuel supply [164].

At the European Union level, the Innovation Fund covers up to 60% of eligible CAPEX and OPEX for large decarbonization projects—including green hydrogen facilities—over 3–15 years, having allocated €4.8 billion to hydrogoen-related projects [166,167]. Through the Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEI) mechanism, the EU backed Italy’s “Green Hydrogen Valley,” which comprises approximately 260 MW of photovoltaics and 160 MW of electrolyzer capacity, with total investment in the hundreds of millions of euros [168]. In the first EU-wide renewable hydrogen auction, seven projects spanning Spain (Hysencia, Catalina), Portugal (Grey2green II, MP2X), Finland (eNRG Lahti), and Norway (Skiga) were awarded fixed premiums per kilogram of certified renewable hydrogen, amounting to €694.5 million in support over ten years and covering installations from 35 MWe to 500 MWe [169].

In Poland, the Connecting Europe Facility funded ORLEN’s “Clean Cities—Hydrogen Mobility in Poland” project with €62 million for green hydrogen production and a network of sixteen refueling stations [170]. Under the National Recovery and Resilience Plan, ORLEN received PLN 1.7 billion (≈€370 million) for electrolyzer expansion (~0.9 GW by 2035), and the HySPARK consortium secured €9 million for hydrogen vehicle testing at Warsaw’s Chopin Airport [171,172]. Additionally, the National Economy Bank’s €640 million subsidy program supports investments in low-emission hydrogen production, storage, and transport [173].

Further investment incentives emerge from the Renewable Energy Sources Act amendment (17 August 2023), which extends guarantees of origin to renewable hydrogen alongside electricity, biomethane, heat, biogas, and agricultural biogas, encouraging farm-level hydrogen production [60]. These combined European and national support schemes significantly lower financial barriers, stimulate job creation, and foster hydrogen infrastructure development in agriculture and beyond.

6. Discussion

The results of the conducted literature review on low-emission hydrogen in the agricultural sector require reference to prior studies and the identified challenges and opportunities for the development of hydrogen technologies in European agriculture. Economic analysis highlights significant differences in hydrogen production costs, confirming the advantage of alkaline electrolysis with the lowest cost at 3.5 USD/kg H₂, consistent with recent research by Shin et al. [11]. Particularly promising are integrated biogas systems with an LCOH of 3.14 USD/kg H₂, aligning with findings by Saravanakumar et al. [174] regarding the potential of hydrogen and biomethane as transport fuels [175,176].

The literature review revealed limited analysis of social acceptance of hydrogen technologies in agricultural environments. Studies by Gordon et al. [177] indicate that hydrogen acceptance is shaped by the interplay of cognitive, socio-political, and socio-cultural dimensions. In the European context, Maketo et al. [178] emphasize that social acceptance depends on public education and transparent risk communication processes. Identified infrastructural challenges are corroborated by analyses from Wawer and Stroink [142] regarding hydrogen logistics costs in rural areas, while Janke et al. [141] demonstrate the techno-economic feasibility of small-scale hydrogen production on farms.

Pilot projects in the Netherlands (Fieldlab Hydrogen), Belgium, and Germany (HyPErFarm) demonstrate diverse approaches to integrating hydrogen into agricultural systems. The Dutch model provides valuable experience in local hydrogen production and distribution, where farms use surplus solar energy to produce hydrogen with limited grid electricity feed-in capabilities. It is worth noting that the Dutch Fieldlab initiatives [38,41] achieve higher system efficiency—around 65% electrical-to-hydrogen conversion—through tightly integrated electrolyzer–storage architectures, whereas the HyPErFarm agrivoltaic model [43] attains lower levelized hydrogen costs (~4.5 €/kg versus 6 €/kg) at the expense of more limited production scale. Moreover, the principal barriers—high capital expenditure, complex regulatory frameworks, and limited social acceptance in rural settings—mirror challenges identified in Transport Sector hydrogen studies [19], while policy analyses [36] and social acceptance reviews [178] suggest that tailored financial mechanisms (e.g., technology leasing, tax incentives) and focused stakeholder engagement can significantly improve adoption rates.

Overcoming the challenges associated with deploying hydrogen technologies in agriculture and filling the research gaps will not be easy. Nonetheless, it is both possible and necessary now to pose several key questions for future inquiry. First, how can the energy efficiency of small-scale electrolysis systems be optimized under variable renewable energy supply, and what sizes and configurations of hydrogen production units are most suitable for farms of different scales and production profiles? Second, how can on-farm hydrogen production be integrated with existing biogas systems to maximize synergies, and how should hybrid energy systems (photovoltaic, wind, hydrogen, and battery storage) be designed to accommodate agricultural conditions with optimal hydrogen storage strategies? Third, which factors determine social acceptance of hydrogen technologies in rural communities, how does local hydrogen production affect water resource security, and what tangible environmental benefits do on-farm hydrogen systems offer compared to alternative decarbonization solutions? Fourth, which financing and infrastructure-sharing models best support adoption of hydrogen technologies by small and medium-sized farms, and which policy supports mechanisms and hydrogen value-chain models foster development of a circular rural economy? Finally, which innovative materials can enhance the durability and efficiency of electrolyzers operating under the demanding conditions of agricultural environment? Together, these questions outline a roadmap for advancing research and guiding policy to unlock hydrogen’s transformative potential in sustainable agriculture.

7. Conclusions and Summary

To summarize the key facts about hydrogen, it is important to emphasize that low-emission hydrogen offers significant potential as an energy source in the decarbonization of the agricultural sector. Forecasts regarding the growth of hydrogen demand, both in Europe and globally, point to the growing importance of this fuel in the future.

The European Union has adopted an ambitious hydrogen strategy, envisaging a significant increase in renewable hydrogen production to 10 Mt by 2030 via 120 GW of electrolyzer capacity, requiring approximately 500 TWh of renewable electricity. This is an ambitious task for European countries, especially in the area of development of hydrogen technologies in the agricultural sector. Innovative hydrogen production methods using renewable energy sources and agricultural waste are particularly promising. Despite numerous challenges, such as high initial costs, the need for renewable energy, and the need to develop infrastructure, low-carbon hydrogen has the potential to become a significant element of the energy transition in agriculture. Considering the potential for decarbonization, this is one of the possible and necessary options. Farms, as both consumers and potential energy producers, are in a unique position to implement hydrogen technologies, utilizing their own organic waste and renewable energy sources. Research clearly indicates the need for a radical transformation of the agricultural sector towards decarbonization. Agriculture, a significant source of CO₂ emissions, can reduce its emissions by up to 60% thanks to hydrogen. The most effective feedstocks for microbial fermentation and electrolysis are various types of wastewater and lignocellulosic agricultural waste.

It is essential to introduce comprehensive training programs for farmers, including: technical education on hydrogen production from organic waste, training on the safety of hydrogen storage and handling, and demonstration programs demonstrating practical applications on model farms.

The development of local hydrogen markets, where farms can sell surplus hydrogen production to local businesses, public transport, and energy grids, provides additional income streams for farmers. The implementation of hydrogen technologies in agriculture should also be closely linked to EU climate policies. Farms producing hydrogen from organic waste could receive carbon credits, providing an additional source of financing.

Hydrogen technologies in agriculture represent not only an opportunity but also a necessity in the context of decarbonization goals. Self-sufficient farms producing hydrogen from their own organic waste and renewable energy sources are a key element of a future sustainable agricultural system. However, the success of this transition requires comprehensive support, including financial incentives, technical education, and the development of local hydrogen markets.

Hydrogen’s use in agriculture could include powering agricultural machinery, generating energy and heat, and producing fertilizers. In the long term, the development of a hydrogen economy in agriculture could contribute to increasing farm energy self-sufficiency, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and improving economic sustainability by reducing dependence on fossil fuels. However, political and financial support will be crucial, as it can make hydrogen technologies a viable solution for the future of sustainable agriculture.

The HyPErFarm initiative, involving Belgium, Denmark and Germany, is an excellent example of international collaboration in exploring different agrophotovoltaic and hydrogen configurations under different climatic and agricultural conditions. The experiences of the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark will provide a valuable source of knowledge for other European countries seeking to implement hydrogen technologies in their agricultural sectors. Although Poland is a significant hydrogen producer in Europe (ranking third), it, along with other countries such as Spain, Portugal, Finland, and Norway, have received EU support for hydrogen projects, but specific applications in agriculture are not yet as advanced as those of the leaders.

Despite many challenges and difficulties, the prospects for developing a hydrogen economy in agriculture are promising. Low-carbon hydrogen can contribute to the decarbonization of many processes in the agricultural sector, from transport and agricultural machinery, through irrigation systems, to fertilizer production. Furthermore, farms have a unique opportunity to use their own organic waste to produce hydrogen, which can increase their energy self-sufficiency and improve their economic balance. The production and simultaneous use of low-carbon hydrogen on farms offers a sustainable path to meeting energy needs while reducing environmental impact. By utilizing anaerobic digestion processes, thermochemical technologies, and electrolysis, agricultural waste can be transformed into a valuable energy source, supporting both energy security and environmental sustainability.