Comprehensive Evaluation of Agrivoltaics Research: Breadth, Depth, and Insights for Future Research

Abstract

Agrivoltaics integrates agricultural production with solar energy generation to address challenges related to land use, food security, and renewable energy development. This study provides the most comprehensive evaluation to date of global agrivoltaic research, aiming to classify the literature, identify strengths and gaps, and guide future work. We systematically screened over 3000 English-language publications through 2023 for relevant agrivoltaic publications. A total of 670 studies were categorized in the InSPIRE Data Portal across five agrivoltaic activities and multiple hierarchical themes, including physical, biological, technological, social, and crosscutting domains. We found that research was concentrated on crop production, microclimate dynamics, and PV performance, with gaps in areas like human health, wildlife, policy, and standardized methodologies. Although the U.S. emphasizes animal grazing and habitat-based systems in practice, most U.S.-based studies focused disproportionately on crop production. The analysis revealed uneven geographic and topical representation and highlighted a lack of integrated, interdisciplinary approaches. This study concludes that while agrivoltaic research has grown rapidly, more coordinated efforts could support standardized data collection, address overlooked ecological and social impacts, and align research focus with real-world system implementation, ultimately improving the scalability and successful deployment of agrivoltaic systems.

1. Introduction

Agrivoltaics refers to the practice of combining solar energy generation with agricultural production on the same land [1,2,3]. This integrated approach encompasses a wide range of applications—from growing crops between and beneath solar panels to grazing livestock within solar arrays, cultivating pollinator-friendly habitats under solar installations, and integrating photovoltaics into greenhouses [4]. Over the last decades, agrivoltaics has gained global attention as a potential solution for addressing multiple challenges related to land use, food production, water security, and renewable energy deployment [1,2,3,4,5].

The concept of agrivoltaics originated in the early 1980s, when Goetzberger and Zastrow [6] introduced the idea of an “agro-energy” system designed to share sunlight between photovoltaic (PV) modules and crops planted beneath them. Adoption was initially slow, in part due to a nascent solar market and high costs of PV technology, and only one research study emerged before 2010 [6,7]. However, as the PV industry matured and solar energy costs declined in the 2010s, the widespread installation of PV systems worldwide sparked a surge of interest and research in agrivoltaics [8]. By 2020, the first Agrivoltaic World Conference had taken place, bringing together researchers from around the globe and catalyzing new research directions, implementations, collaborations, and industry activities.

Throughout the 2020s, agrivoltaic research has grown significantly, accompanied by efforts to define, classify, and develop standards for agrivoltaic systems [9]. For example, the number of publications rose from fewer than 50 in 2019 to more than 150 per year in 2022 and 2023. This rapid expansion in both research and implementation has prompted researchers to evaluate the state of agrivoltaic research and draw conclusions from existing studies. Since 2019, several review articles have been published on agrivoltaics, focusing on research trends [10,11], system design and development [12,13,14], and assessments of methods for predicting crop yield and other outcomes [5,15]. These reviews have identified both topical and geographical gaps in the literature and highlighted trends such as the generalized effects of shade on crop production. However, agrivoltaic research has yet to be categorized and analyzed systematically and comprehensively in a way that clearly outlines the field’s strengths and gaps across its broad scope.

The aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive assessment of agrivoltaic research—both in breadth and depth—through a review of English-language publications. We categorize this literature, identify major research themes, and examine geographic and methodological trends. To support this effort, we developed the InSPIRE Data Portal [7], an open-access database of agrivoltaic studies. Rather than synthesize or summarize every individual publication, we focus on creating a systematic framework to highlight patterns, research needs, and inform the trajectory of agrivoltaic research broadly. Although we identified 75 distinct sub-topics within agrivoltaics literature, detailed topic-specific syntheses are reserved for future works with broader community input.

The definition of “agrivoltaics” varies regionally and several associated terms are used throughout the world such as: “dual-use,” “co-location,” “agri-PV,” “agri-solar,” “solar sharing,” “agrophotovoltaics,” “ecovoltaics,” and “pollinator-friendly solar.” In this report, we use the term “agrivoltaics” to describe types of land use in which agricultural activities and PV energy production are co-located to produce food, fiber, forage, fuel, or ecosystem services and energy from the same sunlight. The fundamental characteristic of agrivoltaic systems is that the agricultural vegetation is receiving some amount of shade from the PV modules, thus the processes of photosynthesis and photovoltaics are utilizing the same sunlight. We included agrivoltaic systems such as solar greenhouses, commodity or specialty crops, livestock grazing, and pollinator habitat (ecovoltaics) between or beneath PV solar panels within our definition (Figure 1). Further discussion on this definition of agrivoltaics can be found in “The 5 Cs of Agrivoltaic Success Factors in the United States: Lessons from the InSPIRE Research Study” [4].

The InSPIRE Data Portal, part of the broader collection of InSPIRE project resources and tools, will be maintained as a continuously updated open-access resource with an annual report that builds upon this initial comprehensive review. The field of agrivoltaics will continue to change as implementation expands to new regions and further scales, as existing projects mature, and as new research findings improve our understanding of agrivoltaics. By taking stock of existing research, systematically categorizing published findings, and identifying open questions, we seek to inform the research community and guide the responsible, efficient adoption of agrivoltaic systems worldwide.

2. Materials and Methods

We identified, screened, and categorized English-language literature on the topic of agrivoltaics published through the end of 2023 to maintain a publicly accessible database of English-language agrivoltaic literature as part of the InSPIRE Data Portal. This section outlines the methods used to identify, screen, and categorize publications for inclusion in the data portal. Initial efforts to categorize agrivoltaics literature for the data portal began in August 2020. Efforts to systematically identify and categorize agrivoltaic literature began in April 2022. This report focuses on an analysis of all agrivoltaic literature in the data portal that had been published by the end of 2023.

The process of creating the data portal involved comprehensively searching and cataloging of agrivoltaic publications across two major academic databases. This was followed by an initial screening to exclude irrelevant publications and then a detailed evaluation to categorize publications and collect metadata. This process can be divided into three primary stages as follows: (1) Literature Collection, (2) Literature Screening, and (3) Literature Categorization. We report specific details on the methods we used for each part of the process in the sections that follow.

2.1. Literature Collection

We performed our literature search in two of the most prominent databases of scholarly publications to ensure a comprehensive assessment of the pool of agrivoltaic literature: SCOPUS [16] and Google Scholar [17]. Our literature search included multiple commonly used terms associated with agrivoltaics (in addition to ‘agrivoltaic’) to collect a broad set of relevant publications. These terms are found in the following search string that we used to search for agrivoltaic publications in the two databases:

“agripv OR agrivoltaic OR agriphotovoltaic OR agrovoltaic OR ecovoltaic”.

Using these search terms in the SCOPUS and Google Scholar databases returned a total of 3036 potential publications that had been published by 2023. We collected the title, authors, journal, year of publication, and links for each publication in a spreadsheet to prepare for the literature screening process.

2.2. Literature Screening

We screened the pool of potential publications to include literature that was related to agrivoltaics and met our criteria for inclusion in the data portal. We used the following three key criteria to determine inclusion: (1) Is the publication written in English? (2) Is the publication related to agrivoltaics? (3) Is the publication a book, a book section, a conference paper, a peer-reviewed journal article, a report, or a thesis/dissertation? The decision to include only English-language literature was made to ensure that our team had the ability to accurately analyze the publications for the categorization process and the fact that English is the dominant language used for scientific communication.

The second criterion was based on determining a publication’s agrivoltaic relevance. Given the varying definitions of agrivoltaics used around the world and the potential subjectivity in judging this, we used a consistent definition. Agrivoltaics was defined as the integration of agricultural activities directly underneath or between PV panels, including cropland, livestock grazing, pollinator habitat, and greenhouses with solar panels. The agricultural activity must have received shade from, or shared sunlight with, the PV panels to qualify. Studies that explicitly investigated these interactions, including novel experimental designs, modeling approaches, or reviews synthesizing findings related to agrivoltaics, were included in the database.

Conversely, studies related to solar energy on farms, like solar-powered irrigation pumps, that did not specifically study agricultural activities beneath or between PV panels were excluded. Additionally, we excluded studies that only referenced agrivoltaics but did not present novel findings or analysis. An example would be a study on regenerative agriculture that mentions agrivoltaics as one possible practice in a regenerative agriculture system but does not perform an analysis or present novel data related to regenerative agriculture in an agrivoltaic system. Other types of documents excluded include newsletters, opinion pieces, and pre-print articles lacking formal peer review.

Upon screening the pool of 3036 potential publications, we found 670 publications that were written in English, focused on agrivoltaics, and fit within our valid document types. These publications were each added to the data portal upon completion of the categorization process.

2.3. Literature Categorization

The process of categorizing the 670 screened agrivoltaic publications involved reviewing each publication, recording basic metadata such as author, year published, and journal, and recording specific metadata including the type of data that was reported, the agrivoltaic activity, the geographic scope, and a hierarchical categorization of the research topic. The metadata captured during this categorization process formed the foundation for our analyses in this report. The complete list of references can also be found in Supplemental Materials S1.

2.3.1. Data Collection and Analysis

It was important to understand the source and type of data reported in publications, and thus we collected metadata to identify if the data reported was collected in the field, modeled with a computer, and/or novel. To facilitate the classification of these non-exclusive data identifiers, we used the following criteria:

• Field Data: A publication was tagged as containing field data if it involved the collection and reporting of quantitative or qualitative measurements or responses from an agrivoltaic system or stakeholders, respectively. For instance, soil moisture data collected from a field site or survey responses collected from farmers would qualify a study as having field data.
• Modeled Data: Studies that employed computational, statistical, or analytical models to simulate agrivoltaic processes or predict outcomes, or generated data rather than making real-world measurements, were categorized as having modeled data. For instance, soil moisture data generated from a model that used real-world irradiance, temperature, and relative humidity data as inputs would qualify a study as having modeled data.
• Novel Data: A publication was designated as containing novel data analysis if it presented statistical evaluations, graphs, or new insights derived from original or secondary datasets. For instance, any publication presenting new field or modeled data qualified, and a publication that performed a new analysis on the data from five previously published papers would also qualify as novel data.

2.3.2. Agrivoltaic Activities

Publications were further categorized based on the type of agrivoltaic system studied, referred to as Agrivoltaic Activities. Each publication was associated with at least one of the following classifications, though some studies addressed multiple strategies:

• Animal Grazing: Studies examining the integration of livestock (e.g., sheep, cattle, poultry) within solar arrays, including impacts on animal health, forage quality, and land management.
• Crop Production: Research focused on cultivating crops under or adjacent to solar panels, including studies on crop yields, physiology, and agronomic practices within agrivoltaic systems.
• Habitat/Ecovoltaics: Publications addressing the establishment of native vegetation, pollinator habitats, or other ecological functions within agrivoltaic systems, often linked to biodiversity conservation or apiaries.
• Greenhouse: Studies involving greenhouses with integrated solar panels or thermal solar systems, distinguishing them from open field agrivoltaic applications. Greenhouse studies would not be identified as Crop Production studies (vice versa) unless both activities were part of a single study.
• Crosscutting PV: Research on agrivoltaic technologies, system configurations, policy frameworks, deployment strategies, and interdisciplinary analyses that do not fit exclusively within one of the above categories.

These classifications align with the Agrivoltaic Activities outlined in the InSPIRE Map [18], with the exception of Crosscutting PV, which was introduced to account for broader agrivoltaic research that does not fall under a single category.

2.3.3. Geographic Scope

The geographic scope of each study was recorded to provide insight into regional trends in agrivoltaic research and implementation. Publications were classified into one of three geographic categories:

• Global: Research with no specific geographic focus, including systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and global-scale modeling studies.
• Country-Level: Studies focused on a specific country, documenting field research, national policy analyses, or regionally specific modeling. The relevant country was recorded.
• State-Level (United States Only): For U.S.-based studies, state-specific data or analyses were documented to assess agrivoltaic implementation at the subnational level.

This classification allows for the identification of research gaps in specific regions and supports comparative analysis of agrivoltaic systems across different environmental and policy contexts.

2.3.4. Categorization Hierarchy

To enable structured data retrieval in the InSPIRE Data Portal and facilitate research synthesis, publications were classified within a hierarchical framework consisting of Categories, Topics, and Sub-Topics:

• Categories: The broadest classification level, encompassing five overarching research domains:

  1.1.

  Physical: Microclimatology, soil science, hydrology, and related environmental processes.

  1.2.

  Technological: PV technologies, system configurations, and site suitability.

  1.3.

  Biological: Plant science, livestock management, entomology, and ecosystem interactions.

  1.4.

  Social: Research on policy, economics, market assessments, and stakeholder perspectives.

  1.5.

  Crosscutting: Reviews, methodological studies, and interdisciplinary research spanning multiple domains.

• Topics: Within each category, research was further classified into specialized research topics, such as PV Performance, Crop Productivity, Soil Health, and Policy and Regulatory Issues.
• Sub-Topics: The most granular classification, sub-topics capture specific research areas frequently studied within each topic. For instance, the Microclimatology topic includes sub-topics such as Air Temperature, Relative Humidity, Wind and Airflow, Light and Shading, and PAR/PPFD.

A publication could be tagged with multiple categories, topics, and sub-topics to reflect its multidisciplinary nature. This hierarchical structure ensured that agrivoltaic research is cataloged in a way that facilitates cross-disciplinary insights and enables efficient data retrieval for future studies. A visualization of this screening and characterization method is shown in Figure 2. Definitions for each sub-topic can be found in Supplemental Materials S2, and a detailed breakdown of the entire categorization process is found in Supplemental Materials S3.

2.4. Data Hosting and Analysis Methods

The InSPIRE Data Portal on Open Energy Information (OpenEI) uses Semantic MediaWiki (SMW; Version 4.1.3) as a platform to host, query, and analyze agrivoltaics references. MediaWiki (Version 1.43.0) is the wiki application best known for powering Wikipedia which allows users to explore semantically linked data. SMW is an extension of MediaWiki that adds the capability to query structured data stored on wiki pages [19].

SMW enables the creation of structured and linked data, facilitating advanced queries and data visualizations directly within the platform. Additionally, it supports exporting data in formats like CSV and provides an API for external analysis. We used tools such as the R programming language (Version 4.4.2), the Python programming language language (Version 3.11.7), SankeyMATIC, and Plotly (4.10.4) to create graphs from exported data.

2.5. Methodological Limitations

We developed the InSPIRE Data Portal to serve as a comprehensive repository of English-language agrivoltaic literature, enriched with curated metadata to support the analyses presented in this report and to enable future research. While considerable effort was made to ensure completeness and objectivity, both the database and the analyses have inherent limitations. These limitations include: the database includes only literature published in English; specific data and quantitative results were not systematically extracted or cataloged; geographic metadata reflects the location where each study was conducted, which might not reflect the locations of the associated institutions or place of publication; the inclusion of a study in the database does not reflect its scientific quality or the maturity of understanding within the field; and metadata collection and publication categorization involved human judgment, introducing potential subjectivity into the classification process. The involvement of multiple researchers (8) in the categorization process allowed us to make standardization checks throughout the categorization process in which researchers would perform independent categorizations of the same set of articles and come to consensus, updating our definitions appropriately when warranted.

3. Results

We leveraged the InSPIRE Data Portal database to provide a broad overview of the current state of agrivoltaic research and identify potential research trends and gaps. The metadata associated with the 670 publications catalogued in the database at the time of this report contains information about the history, development, and state of the art in agrivoltaics research through the end of 2023.

The number of agrivoltaic publications has grown rapidly since the conception of the idea, especially in the past decade (Figure 3), though many areas of research within the field have been given little attention to date. In the following sections, we report on the distributions of publications through a hierarchy of categories, topics, and sub-topics. We report the distributions of modeled and field-collected data used in these publications. We report the distributions of publications through geographical space and through time, and we report on the linkages between areas of research that might help the research community better understand the gaps identified.

3.1. Agrivoltaic Activity

We defined five types of agrivoltaic practices that we referred to as agrivoltaic activities (Figure 4). The agrivoltaic activities included Animal Grazing, Crop Production, Habitat/Ecovoltaics, Greenhouse, and Crosscutting PV. Publications often fit into just one agrivoltaic activity; however, we did not make them mutually exclusive. The Crop Production agrivoltaic activity contained the majority with 490 publications. The Greenhouse agrivoltaic activity had the second most publications with 164, then Crosscutting PV with 91 publications, Animal Grazing with 71 publications, and Habitat/Ecovoltaics had the least with 58 publications.

3.2. Document Type

Here, “document type” refers to the type of publication including Journal Article, Book, Book Section, Thesis/Dissertation, Conference Paper, and Report. The majority of publications in the InSPIRE Data Portal were peer-reviewed journal articles with 449 publications. Conference papers were the second most common document type with 129 publications followed by theses and dissertations with 58 publications, reports with 20 publications, 9 book sections, and 5 books (Figure 5).

3.3. Publications by Category, Topic, and Sub-Topic

Publications in the InSPIRE Data Portal were organized hierarchically, beginning with Categories at the highest level, followed by Topics, and then Sub-topics for more detailed classification. A single publication may be classified under multiple categories, topics, and sub-topics. The Sankey diagram (Figure 6) visualizes the distribution of 670 InSPIRE Data Portal entries, illustrating where agrivoltaic research efforts have been concentrated and where gaps remain. At the highest level of organization in the data portal categories, there was a relatively balanced distribution of publications. The Technological category had the largest number of publications (327), followed by Physical (324), Crosscutting (319), Social (248), and Biological (234) (Figure 6).

Considering the overview of agrivoltaic research topic publications over time (Figure 7), a significant portion of publications focused on Microclimatology (306 publications), Plant Sciences (210 publications), and PV Technologies (199 publications), emphasizing the primary role of environmental conditions, crop productivity, and solar panel efficiency in agrivoltaic systems research.

Other areas remain relatively underexplored, particularly those related to ecological and human dimensions. Human Health (2 publications) and Wildlife (4 publications) have received minimal attention, despite the potential impacts of agrivoltaic installations on farmworker safety, heat stress, and biodiversity. Similarly, Entomology (14 publications) remains an emerging area of study, even though pollinators play a crucial role in both agrivoltaic and ecovoltaic systems. Another underdeveloped area is Methodological Comparisons (13 publications), indicating a lack of standardized frameworks for assessing agrivoltaic performance across different regions and system configurations.

Economic and social factors are increasing in publication frequency. Market Assessments (116 publications) and Economics (158 publications) suggest growing recognition and exploration of the financial and commercial aspects of agrivoltaic adoption. However, Policy & Regulatory research (46 publications) still remains relatively limited. Policies and regulations, through government incentives, land-use regulations, and energy policies, can have an influence on deployment, and many policies have only recently been enacted.

Crosscutting Research provided broad overviews and interdisciplinary insights, with 183 publications focused on Reviews and Informational Studies and 114 publications on Impact Assessments. Many of these studies synthesized findings across multiple disciplines, offering insights into agrivoltaic system trade-offs, best practices, and implementation challenges. The distribution of research across these topics is uneven, highlighting the potential value for more integrated assessments that consider technological, environmental, and socioeconomic factors simultaneously.

3.3.1. Physical Category

The Physical category included research primarily on abiotic aspects of agrivoltaic systems such as microclimatic processes, soil properties, and hydrology. Among the three different topics in the Physical category, Microclimatology had the largest number of associated publications (305) (Figure 8). In fact, the Microclimatology topic had the most associated publications of any topic we identified. In contrast the Hydrology (72) and Soil (63) topics each had near-median numbers of associated publications compared to all other topics (Figure 8).

Microclimatology Topic

The microclimate—local climatic conditions in a space that are distinct from the climatic conditions around it—has been a fundamental aspect of agrivoltaic research. This is likely because the microclimate created by the PV structure in an agrivoltaic system is the primary difference compared to traditional agriculture. Measuring and understanding the microclimate within agrivoltaic systems is useful for contextualizing and understanding other impacts such as on crop yield, human health, and energy generation. The topic included the following sub-topics: Air Temperature, Relative Humidity, Wind and Airflow, Light and Shading, and PAR/PPFD. These sub-topics, defined below in

Table 1. Sub-topic definitions for the Microclimatology topic.

Microclimatology Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Air Temperature	Air temperature in agrivoltaic systems, generally to compare to standard agricultural or PV systems
Relative Humidity	Relative humidity in agrivoltaic systems, generally to compare to standard agricultural or PV systems
Wind and Airflow	Wind direction, speed, turbulence, pressure, and other relevant aspects of wind in relation to agrivoltaic systems
Light and Shading	Patterns of light and shade within agrivoltaic systems generally related to the shade introduced by PV modules and racking
PAR/PPFD	Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) within agrivoltaic systems. Studies within this sub-topic are necessarily also in the Light and Shading sub-topic, but not all Light and Shading studies must be within the PAR/PPDF sub-topic

, reflect the microclimate components that are altered in agrivoltaic systems.

The Light and Shading sub-topic included the most publications (245), followed by Air Temperature (141), PAR/PPFD (119), Relative Humidity (89), and Wind and Airflow (50) (Figure 9). Each of these sub-topics was well represented in the literature compared to all sub-topics identified in this report. This is indicative of the importance of microclimate data in contextualizing results and making results comparable across geographies and system configurations.

Soil Topic

Soil research is foundational to agriculture, agricultural science, and understanding the impacts and tradeoffs of agrivoltaic systems such as carbon and nutrient cycling, agricultural yields, and long-term land-use viability. The attributes of soils are important indicators of the capacity of soil to support plant and animal life including agricultural activities. In agrivoltaic research, soil properties have often been used as proxies to evaluate the land-use impacts of PV construction and operation, as well as to assess the effectiveness of land management strategies over time.

Soil research includes the following sub-topics: Bulk Density/Compaction, Soil Temperature, Nutrients, Erosion, Soil Carbon, Microbiome, Heavy Metals/Contaminants, and Soil Management. These sub-topics, defined in

Table 2. Sub-topic definitions for the Soil topic.

Soil Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Bulk Density/Compaction	Soil bulk density and other measures of soil compaction in agrivoltaic systems
Soil Temperature	Soil temperature in agrivoltaic systems
Nutrients	Soil nutrients in agrivoltaic systems including macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur), micronutrients (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine), and related measures such as pH and cation exchange capacity
Erosion	Soil erosion in agrivoltaic systems
Soil Carbon	Soil carbon in agrivoltaic systems including soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil inorganic carbon (SIC)
Microbiome	Soil microbiome in agrivoltaic systems including the diversity and abundance of bacteria, fungi, archaea, and other microorganisms and the processes they contribute to in soil function
Heavy Metals/Contaminants	The presence and impact of heavy metals and other soil contaminants in agrivoltaic systems
Soil Management	Soil management practices in agrivoltaic systems including but not limited to cover cropping, crop rotation, tilling practices, grading, excavation, runoff control, and soil treatments

below, reflect the soil attributes that have been studied in agrivoltaic systems.

The Soil Temperature sub-topic had the most publications (44), followed by Nutrients (18), Soil Carbon (11), Bulk Density/Compaction and Erosion (each with 5), Microbiome and Soil Management (each with 2), and Heavy Metals/Contaminants having had no associated publications (Figure 10). While not as widely represented as microclimate sub-topics, soil sub-topics such as Soil Temperature, Nutrients, and Soil Carbon appeared frequently in the literature, reflecting growing interest in understanding how agrivoltaic systems affect underlying soil processes.

Hydrology Topic

Hydrology—the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water—plays a role in understanding the environmental implications and agricultural performance of agrivoltaic systems. In these systems, PV infrastructure can alter the natural water cycle by changing surface albedo, evaporation rates, precipitation interception, and water infiltration patterns. Hydrology-focused studies are therefore essential for evaluating water availability, plant-water interactions, and the broader ecohydrological impacts of agrivoltaic development.

The Hydrology topic was moderately represented among all topics with slightly more publications than the Soil topic (Figure 7). It included the following sub-topics: Soil Water Content, Evapotranspiration, Stormwater Runoff, and Landscape-Level Hydrology. These sub-topics, defined below in

Table 3. Sub-topic definitions for the Hydrology topic.

Hydrology Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Soil Water Content	Soil water content or other measures of soil moisture in agrivoltaic systems
Evapotranspiration	Evapotranspiration—the combined processes of evaporation of water from soil or other materials and transpiration of water through plants—in agrivoltaic systems
Stormwater Runoff	Stormwater runoff—the portion of rain or snow that flows over the land surface—in agrivoltaic systems
Landscape-Level Hydrology	Broad patterns of water movement in relation to agrivoltaic systems

, capture the range of water-related processes affected by agrivoltaic systems.

The Soil Water Content sub-topic had the most publications (46), followed by Evapotranspiration (36), while Stormwater Runoff (4) and Landscape-Level Hydrology (3) had the fewest publications (Figure 11). The relatively high number of references for Soil Water Content and Evapotranspiration highlights the importance of plant-water interactions and soil moisture dynamics in agrivoltaic research. In contrast, the limited number of studies addressing larger-scale hydrological processes and runoff suggests opportunities for future research to better understand agrivoltaic system impacts at broader spatial and temporal scales.

3.3.2. Biological Category

The Biological category includes research on living organisms such as plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms. Among the 234 publications in this category, the Plant Sciences topic (209) had the largest number of publications, followed by Livestock (20), Entomology (14), Wildlife (4), and Human Health (2) (Figure 12). It is notable that the Plant Science topic had the second-highest number of associated publications of all topics while the other four Biological topics represented four of the five topics with the lowest number of associated publications. The large number of publications associated with plant sciences was likely a result of the fundamental need in the field of agrivoltaics to understand the responses of plant growth to shade.

Entomology Topic

Entomology—the study of insects—is a relevant but still emerging area of research within agrivoltaic systems. Insects play a wide range of roles in agroecosystems, functioning as pollinators, pests, predators, and even as producers of agricultural goods. For example, honeybees contribute directly to agricultural output through apiculture, while species such as spiders and wasps act as natural pest control agents. Insect communities also serve as indicators of ecological health, with measures of abundance, richness, and diversity commonly used to assess ecosystem function and resilience.

In this topic, we broadly included terrestrial arthropods such as spiders under the umbrella of entomology to capture their ecological relevance, while maintaining the more familiar terminology for reader accessibility. The Entomology topic was structured around four sub-topics: Abundance, Richness, and Diversity, Pollinators/Predators, Insect Impacts on Agricultural Yields, and Apiaries, as defined below in

Table 4. Sub-topic definitions for the Entomology topic.

Entomology Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Abundance, Richness, and Diversity	Insect population metrics—including size, species distribution, and diversity—and their interactions with the agrivoltaic environment
Pollinators/Predators	The roles of insects and arthropods as pollinators or predators, evaluating their contributions to ecosystem services and crop productivity in agrivoltaic systems
Insect Impacts on Agricultural Yields	The beneficial and detrimental effects of insects on crop yields, focusing on how pollinator and pest dynamics vary in agrivoltaic systems
Apiaries	The colocation of beehives within PV arrays or beekeeping in agrivoltaic systems

.

The Apiaries sub-topic had the most references (11), followed by Abundance, Richness, and Diversity and Pollinators/Predators (each with 4), while Insect Impacts on Agricultural Yields had only 1 publication (Figure 13). Compared to other topics, entomology remains underrepresented in agrivoltaic research. However, the relatively strong presence of apiculture studies indicates early interest in the compatibility of solar infrastructure with managed pollinator systems.

As agrivoltaic projects expand across a wide range of ecological regions, the role of insects—both beneficial and harmful—are likely to become important to assess. The current state of the literature suggests a promising but nascent field, with opportunities to investigate how agrivoltaic systems influence insect-mediated ecosystem services and agricultural outcomes.

Wildlife Topic

Wildlife in the context of agrivoltaic systems refers to undomesticated animals that inhabit or traverse areas within or surrounding solar installations. These animals can be affected by the presence of solar infrastructure through changes to habitat quality, availability, and connectivity. Conversely, wildlife activity can also influence the ecological functioning and management of agrivoltaic sites. The interactions between wildlife and solar arrays may differ between agrivoltaic and traditional PV systems due to differences in vegetation structure, land management practices, and human activity levels.

The Wildlife topic includes studies that examined these interactions specifically within agrivoltaic contexts. We identified the following sub-topics: Populations, Habitat Suitability, and Impact on Wildlife/Habitats, defined in

Table 5. Sub-topic definitions for the Wildlife topic.

Wildlife Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Populations	Wildlife species and their population sizes in agrivoltaic systems
Habitat Suitability	Ways that agrivoltaic systems modify wildlife habitat and influence wildlife distribution and habitat quality
Impact on Wildlife/Habitats	The long-term impacts of agrivoltaic systems on wildlife behavior and habitat trends

below.

The Habitat Suitability sub-topic had the most publications (3), while Impact on Wildlife/Habitats had only 1 publication, and no publications were identified in the Populations sub-topic (Figure 14). These results highlight the early and limited state of wildlife-focused research in agrivoltaic settings. While there is some interest in the habitat value of these dual-use systems, broader ecological assessments of species presence, behavior, and long-term population dynamics remain largely unexplored.

Expanding this research area could help clarify whether agrivoltaic systems offer co-benefits for biodiversity or introduce new ecological trade-offs. As utility-scale PV systems continue to dominate capacity additions, understanding implications for wildlife might become increasingly important.

Livestock Topic

Livestock are a foundational component of agriculture and their integration into agrivoltaic systems has emerged as a promising opportunity for multi-use land management. The success of sheep grazing within PV arrays has spurred growing interest in expanding this strategy to include other livestock species. Agrivoltaic systems that incorporate livestock can potentially provide co-benefits such as shade for animals, use of existing PV fencing for security, and improved land productivity through the simultaneous production of animal products and energy. However, livestock integration also introduces potential challenges. These can include higher infrastructure costs (e.g., elevated panel mounting, wire management), the need for adaptive management strategies, and potential risks to both animals and PV equipment. Research on livestock in agrivoltaic systems helps identify these tradeoffs and their outcomes. Livestock research includes the following four sub-topics: Stocking Rates and Grazing Approaches, Animal Welfare/Temperature/Water Intake, Animal Behavior, and Weight/Milk/Fiber/Meat Production. Sub-topic definitions are presented below in

Table 6. Sub-topic definitions for the Livestock topic.

Livestock Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Stocking Rates and Approaches	Management strategies for livestock in agrivoltaic systems, focusing on optimal stocking rates and operational practices
Animal Welfare/Temperature/Water Intake	Measures of animal welfare in agrivoltaic systems including body temperature and water intake and their implications for livestock health
Animal Behavior	Livestock behavior in agrivoltaic systems including interactions with PV infrastructure and movement patterns
Weight, Milk, Fiber, Meat Production	Animal yield metrics such as weight gain, milk yield, fiber, and meat output in agrivoltaic systems

.

Animal Behavior (12), Animal Welfare/Temperature/Water Intake (10), and Weight/Milk/Fiber/Meat Production (10) were the most frequently studied sub-topics, while Stocking Rates and Grazing Approaches had the fewest publications (6) (Figure 15). With the Livestock topic having a total of 20 publications, the distribution of research among these sub-topics suggests that livestock studies tended to be comprehensive in their assessments. As agrivoltaic systems are scaled up in size and different use cases emerge across geographies, it will be important to understand the interactions between livestock and infrastructure. Although agrivoltaic research on livestock is currently limited compared to other research topics, there appears to be a foundation forming to support future research and the growing solar grazing industry.

Human Health Topic

Human health is intricately linked to agricultural systems, from the safety and well-being of agricultural workers to the quality and nutritional value of food products. Agrivoltaic systems may introduce new health-related benefits, such as protection from excessive heat and solar radiation, or new risks associated with aspects such as solar equipment. Despite this relevance, Human Health is the most understudied topic identified in the agrivoltaic literature. To capture the limited but emerging research on this topic, we identified three sub-topics: Temperature, Sun Exposure, and Other Health Impacts. These sub-topics are defined in

Table 7. Sub-topic definitions for the Human Health topic.

Human Health Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Temperature	Environmental and body temperature variations in agrivoltaic systems specifically as they relate to human health
Sun Exposure	Human exposure to sun in agrivoltaic systems and related health outcomes
Other Health Impacts	Any other health impacts or outcomes related to humans working within or around agrivoltaic systems

.

Only two of the three sub-topics—Temperature and Other Health Impacts—were represented in the literature, each with one reference. No publications addressed Sun Exposure specifically (Figure 16). This distribution reflects the nascent nature of human health research in agrivoltaic systems, with minimal attention to direct occupational or public health implications.

As agrivoltaic development expands across a growing range of climates and communities, further research could help to evaluate how these systems affect the health of agricultural workers and surrounding populations. Health-related outcomes may also influence the social acceptance and long-term viability of agrivoltaic projects.

Plant Science Topic

Plants are a foundational component of agricultural and ecological systems, functioning as primary producers that convert solar energy into food, fuel, fiber, and feed. As the scope of agrivoltaic research has broadened, the role of plants remains a core focus, reflected in the high volume of studies dedicated to plant science. To organize this broad body of literature, we defined eight sub-topics: Plant Phenology, Plant Physiology, Plant Productivity and Yields, Groundcover Abundance/Richness/Diversity, Irrigation Efficiency, Fire Risks, Pest and Diseases, and Nutrition. Definitions for each sub-topic are provided in

Table 8. Sub-topic definitions for the Plant Science topic.

Plant Science Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Plant Phenology	The timing of plant developmental stages—such as germination, flowering, and senescence—in agrivoltaic systems
Plant Physiology	Plant physiology in agrivoltaic systems including plant physiological traits such as photosynthesis, water-use efficiency, and nutrient uptake
Plant Productivity and Yields	Metrics of crop productivity in agrivoltaic systems including crop yield and plant biomass
Groundcover Abundance/ Richness/Diversity	The abundance, richness, and diversity of plant species within agrivoltaic systems. This could include measures of agricultural or non-agricultural plants such as pollinator habitat beneath photovoltaics
Irrigation Efficiency	Irrigation use or water use more broadly within agrivoltaic systems
Fire Risks	The fire risk within agrivoltaic systems including vegetation management and system design strategies related to fire risk
Pest and Diseases	The occurrence and management of plant pests and diseases in agrivoltaic systems
Nutrition	The nutrient content of crops grown within agrivoltaic systems including macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and other measures of crop quality

.

The Plant Productivity and Yields sub-topic (180) had the most associated publications followed by Plant Physiology (96), Plant Phenology (31), Nutrition (31), Groundcover Abundance/Richness/Diversity (23), Irrigation Efficiency (30), Pest and Diseases (5), and Fire Risks having had only a single reference (Figure 17). This distribution highlights the emphasis on production-oriented outcomes in agrivoltaic research. While crop yield and physiology dominate the literature, growing interest in ecological and management dimensions—such as groundcover biodiversity, irrigation optimization, and nutritional outcomes—suggests that more integrative and systems-level approaches may emerge in future studies. The risks associated with plant cultivation in agrivoltaic systems remain a research gap.

3.3.3. Technological Category

The Technological category had the most associated publications of all categories with 327 references. The category had three topics including PV Technologies with 200 publications, System Configuration with 184 publications, and Siting with 39 publications (Figure 18). These topics focused on publications addressing agrivoltaic system design, PV technologies used in agrivoltaics, and aspects related to the physical and geographic siting of agrivoltaic systems. The Siting topic had far fewer publications than PV Technologies and System Configuration indicating a potential research gap.

PV Technologies Topic

PV technologies are the renewable energy foundation of agrivoltaic systems, enabling the co-production of electricity alongside agricultural outputs. While many core principles of PV deployment apply to both conventional solar installations and agrivoltaic arrays, the dual-use nature of agrivoltaics introduces new opportunities—and constraints—that might require tailored technological considerations.

The PV Technologies topic focused on the PV component of agrivoltaic systems, the ways co-located agriculture impacts that PV component, and the use of novel PV materials. As the topic with the third most associated publications, we observed strong interest in this research area likely owing to the importance of energy generation and the fundamental aspect of PV in agrivoltaic systems. Within the PV Technologies topic, we identified five sub-topics: Impact on Energy Generation, Novel PV Materials, Soiling, Panel Temperatures, and Concentrating Solar Power. These sub-topics are defined in

Table 9. Sub-topic definitions for the PV Technologies topic.

PV Technologies Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Impact on Energy Generation	The energy generation of agrivoltaic systems and potential differences in energy generation compared to traditional PV systems
Novel PV Materials	Innovative PV materials—including semi-transparent and organic technologies—used in agrivoltaic systems
Soiling	The soiling of PV modules in agrivoltaic systems
Panel Temperatures	PV module temperatures within agrivoltaic systems
Concentrating Solar Power	Concentrated solar power (CSP) and concentrated PV (CPV) use in agrivoltaic systems or agrivoltaic practices in CSP or CPV systems

.

The Impact on Energy Generation (103) sub-topic had the most associated references, followed by Novel PV Materials (84), Panel Temperatures (43), Concentrating Solar Power (12), and Soiling (7) (Figure 19). This distribution highlights the strong emphasis on performance metrics and material innovation in agrivoltaic systems, while operational challenges like soiling remain relatively underexplored.

System Configuration Topic

System configuration refers to the physical structures, orientations, and overall layouts of the PV arrays within agrivoltaic systems. This topic encompasses research on both conventional and innovative racking designs, fixed and dynamic tracking systems, and their interoperability with agricultural operations. These physical and operational arrangements are important components of agrivoltaic system design, as they determine the spatial relationships between energy production and agricultural productivity, as well as the practicality of implementing dual-use systems on working lands.

The System Configuration topic had a high number of publications compared to other topics in this report (Figure 7) and included the following sub-topics: Height/Spacing/Layouts, Alternative Racking Designs, Tracking Algorithms, and Compatibility with Farming. These sub-topics, defined in

Table 10. Sub-topic definitions for the System Configuration topic.

System Configuration Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Height/Spacing/Layouts	The physical configuration of PV panels—such as their height, spacing, and layout—in agrivoltaic systems
Alternative Racking Designs	Innovative structural supports and integration methods for PV panels in agrivoltaic systems
Tracking Algorithms	The development of solar tracking systems and algorithms designed for agrivoltaic systems such as “anti-tracking” or “dynamic tracking” algorithms that trade PV irradiance capture for crop irradiance capture
Compatibility with Farming	Potential compatibilities or incompatibilities between the PV array and farming practices in agrivoltaic systems including tractor maneuverability, cropping strategy, and irrigation system design

below, represent the main structural and operational design components addressed in agrivoltaic research.

Among the sub-topics, Height/Spacing/Layouts had the most publications (133), followed by Compatibility with Farming (57), Alternative Racking Designs (53), and Tracking Algorithms (23) (Figure 20). The relatively high number of studies in the Height/Spacing/Layouts sub-topic highlighted the importance of structural configuration as a primary design consideration in agrivoltaic research. Compatibility with Farming and Alternative Racking Designs were also well-represented, reflecting the desire to balance agricultural productivity with energy efficiency. Tracking Algorithms, while less frequently studied, represent a niche yet potentially transformative area for optimizing both light availability and land use. Together, these sub-topics indicate that system design is a central focus in the development of viable and scalable agrivoltaic systems.

Siting Topic

Siting refers to the process of selecting the physical location for an agrivoltaic installation. Effective site selection plays a role in balancing agricultural productivity, solar energy generation, and social acceptance. This topic encompasses analyses at various geographical scales, from localized assessments of individual project parcels to broader studies evaluating site suitability at regional, state, or national levels.

The Siting topic had a modest number of publications compared to other topics in this report (Figure 7) and included the following two sub-topics: Site Suitability and Siting Guidelines. These sub-topics are defined below in

Table 11. Sub-topic definitions for the Siting topic.

Siting Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Site Suitability	The suitability of land for agrivoltaic systems including the evaluation of factors such as solar resource, local climate, slope, aspect, elevation, and soil health
Siting Guidelines	The best practices for selecting and preparing land for agrivoltaic systems

.

Site Suitability was the more commonly studied sub-topic, with 33 associated publications, compared to 12 for Siting Guidelines (Figure 21). The relatively low number of associated publications indicates that the Siting topic generally remains understudied in the agrivoltaic context.

3.3.4. Social Category

The Social category includes research on social perspectives of agrivoltaic systems and the policy, market, and economic aspects of agrivoltaics adoption and implementation. Of the 248 entries in the Social category, 159 were associated with the Economics topic, 116 with the Market Assessments topic, 52 with the Social Perspectives topic, and 47 with the Policy and Regulatory Issues topic (Figure 22). This distribution reflects considerable research efforts into the economics and markets of agrivoltaic systems with less focus on the societal aspects and regulatory considerations.

Social Perspectives Topic

The Social Perspectives topic primarily addresses the human dimensions of agrivoltaic system development. Much of the research in this category focused on characterizing the social context in which agrivoltaic systems are deployed, including identifying relevant stakeholders, analyzing stakeholder relationships, and understanding the barriers to implementation that stem from these interactions. In addition, this topic includes research on the direct and indirect impacts of agrivoltaics on people and communities.

The Social Perspectives topic had a moderate number of publications overall (Figure 7) and included the following sub-topics: Farmer/Landowner Perspectives, Community Perspectives, Solar Industry Perspective, Implementation Barriers, and Broader Social Impacts. These sub-topics, defined in

Table 12. Sub-topic definitions for the Social Perspectives topic.

Social Perspectives Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Farmer/Landowner Perspectives	The perspectives of farmers and landowners regarding agrivoltaic systems
Community Perspectives	The perspectives of community members outside of farmers and landowners regarding agrivoltaic systems
Solar Industry Perspective	Motivations, strategies, and concerns of solar developers, installers, and related actors in the agrivoltaic space
Implementation Barriers	The challenges and obstacles—technical, financial, regulatory, or other—that hinder the adoption of agrivoltaic systems
Broader Social Impacts	Other societal impacts of agrivoltaic systems

, represent the primary areas of interest in the literature related to social dimensions of agrivoltaic systems.

Farmer/Landowner Perspectives, Implementation Barriers, and Community Perspectives were the most frequently studied sub-topics, each with around 30 associated publications. Solar Industry Perspective and Broader Social Impacts had fewer publications, with 13 and 11 associated publications, respectively (Figure 23). The concentration of research on farmer, community, and implementation perspectives reflects the central role that social dynamics play in the feasibility and acceptance of agrivoltaic systems. The lower number of publications on industry perspectives and broader impacts indicates a potential gap especially concerning industry perspectives on agrivoltaic systems and future opportunities to explore additional societal implications.

Market Assessments Topic

The capacity to scale agrivoltaic system deployment is tied to its technical and market potential—that is, the physical feasibility of installing agrivoltaic systems and integrating them into energy and agricultural markets. This topic included studies that assess both the theoretical extent to which agrivoltaic systems could be deployed and the real-world economic and logistical conditions that might impact implementation. It also included consideration of agricultural supply chains and how the co-production of food and energy may alter the way products and services from agrivoltaic systems are delivered and valued.

The Market Assessments topic had a moderate number of publications compared to other topics in this report (Figure 7) and included the following sub-topics: Technical Potential, Market Potential, Agricultural Supply Chains, and Value Propositions. These sub-topics are defined in

Table 13. Sub-topic definitions for the Market Assessments topic.

Market Assessments Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Technical Potential	The potential deployment capacity of agrivoltaic systems including evaluations of resource availability, connectivity, and compatibility
Market Potential	The economic opportunities of agrivoltaic systems including assessments of energy, agricultural products, and other services
Agricultural Supply Chains	The movement of agricultural products from farm to market within the framework of agrivoltaic operations
Value Propositions	Scenarios in which agrivoltaic systems offer added benefits over traditional agricultural or PV systems

and reflect the different ways that researchers have approached the question of agrivoltaic viability in real and projected markets.

Technical Potential was the most frequently studied sub-topic with 84 associated publications, followed by Value Propositions (38), Market Potential (29), and Agricultural Supply Chains (5) (Figure 24). The emphasis on Technical Potential reflects a focus in the literature on estimating the scalable capacity of agrivoltaic systems to determine the broader viability of the concept. The Value Propositions and Market Potential sub-topics appear to be emerging areas of research with potentially greater opportunity for additional research. The relatively small number of studies addressing Agricultural Supply Chains highlights a gap in understanding the ways that dual-use systems integrate into broader food systems.

Policy and Regulatory Issues Topic

The Policy and Regulatory Issues topic encompasses governance frameworks, permitting processes, incentive structures, and legal considerations that influence the development and operation of agrivoltaic systems. Agrivoltaic systems have often been deployed in policy environments where formal definitions, permitting pathways, and standards have yet to be established, resulting in regulatory ambiguity. As such, this topic included both qualitative and quantitative studies that evaluated the ways that existing policies supported or hindered agrivoltaic deployment.

The Policy and Regulatory Issues topic had a below-median number of publications compared to other topics in this report (Figure 7) and included the following sub-topics: Agricultural Policies and Regulations, Energy Policies and Regulations, Incentive Structures, Federal/State/County Policies, and Insurance, Liability, and Risks. These sub-topics, defined in

Table 14. Sub-topic definitions for the Policy and Regulatory Issues topic.

Policy and Regulatory Issues Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Agricultural Policies and Regulations	Agricultural policies and regulations related to agrivoltaic systems
Energy Policies and Regulations	Energy policies and regulations related to agrivoltaic systems
Incentive Structures	Economic incentives, such as tax credits and grants, that promote the development of agrivoltaic projects
Federal/State/County Policies	Governmental policies at various levels and their impacts on agrivoltaic systems
Insurance, Liability, and Risks	The unique insurance, liability, and risk management challenges associated with operating agrivoltaic installations

, represent the various levels and mechanisms through which agrivoltaics has been incentivized, regulated, and insured.

Among the sub-topics, Federal/State/County Policies had the highest number of associated publications (35), Agricultural Policies and Regulations (22) and Energy Policies and Regulations had 21 associated publications. Incentive Structures had 17 publications, while Insurance, Liability, and Risks had only two associated publications (Figure 25). This distribution suggests that while researchers have explored the ways that multilevel governance has impacted agrivoltaic systems, the literature has focused less on the financial and legal protections that might be unique to agrivoltaics. The limited focus on insurance and liability highlights a research gap on a potentially important aspect of agrivoltaic development.

Economics Topic

The costs associated with developing and maintaining agrivoltaic systems are central to understanding their real-world deployment potential. While the decreasing costs of PV technology and supportive policy frameworks have accelerated conventional solar deployment, agrivoltaic systems can incur additional expenses. These may include the need for elevated panel structures, increased row spacing, or site-specific modifications to support concurrent agricultural operations. However, these added costs may be counterbalanced by new income streams from agricultural production and co-benefits such as job creation, rural revitalization, and environmental services. The Economics topic included publications that were focused on all aspects of the economic impacts of agrivoltaic systems.

The number of associated publications for this topic was above the median compared to other topics (Figure 7). The following sub-topics were included: Configuration/Climate/Crop Analysis, Rural Development Impacts, Techno-Economic Analyses, and Cost Benchmarks for O&M/CAPEX, each defined in

Table 15. Sub-topic definitions for the Economics topic.

Economics Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
Configuration/Climate/Crop Analysis	Economic trade-offs between system configuration, local climate, and crop choices for agrivoltaic systems
Rural Development Impacts	Socioeconomic impacts of agrivoltaic systems on rural communities including job creation and energy access
Techno-Economic Analyses	Financial performance of agrivoltaic systems commonly including metrics such as net present value, levelized cost of energy, and payback period
Cost Benchmarks for O&M/CAPEX	Capital expenditures and operations and maintenance costs associated with agrivoltaic systems

.

Techno-Economic Analyses was the most frequently addressed sub-topic, with 87 associated publications, followed by Cost Benchmarks for O&M/CAPEX (63), Configuration/Climate/Crop Analysis (57), and Rural Development Impacts (36) (Figure 26). This distribution suggests that while foundational economic modeling is well represented, there is less attention to downstream impacts such as rural development, which may have broader societal implications. Current studies provide a valuable baseline for economic metrics, which will become increasingly important to refine as the industry matures and expands.

3.3.5. Crosscutting Category

The Cross-cutting category takes a broader, high-level approach to analyzing agrivoltaics. Rather than focusing on a specific aspect, these references encompass multiple parts of the practice, emphasizing feasibility, standardization, and impacts. This category includes five topics: Reviews/Informational (184), Impact Assessments (115), Tools (38), Standardization and Best Practices (36), and Methodological Comparisons (14). The Reviews/Information and Impact Assessments topics represented the majority of associated publications while Tools, Standardization and Best Practices, and Methodological Comparisons were among the topics with the lowest numbers of associated publications (Figure 27). Notably, all these topics with the exception of Impact Assessments were standalone topics without sub-topics.

Standardization and Best Practices Topic

The Standardization and Best Practices topic was standalone, having no sub-topics, and was defined as follows: standards, definitions, and best practices for the design, implementation, and management of agrivoltaic systems. This topic was among the newest topics with the first associated publications being published in 2019. The novelty of this topic reflects the relatively new nature of the field of agrivoltaics in general and the recent focus on developing standards, definitions, and guidance to move the field forward in a uniform direction. This topic had among the lowest number of associated publications (36) indicating that this research area likely remains a gap. Recent growth in the number of publications on this topic in 2023 indicates that agrivoltaic standardization and best practices might become an increasingly important topic Figure 7.

Tools Topic

The Tools topic was standalone, having no sub-topics, and was defined as follows: the development and application of analytical, modeling, and practical tools used to assess, design, and optimize agrivoltaic systems. The first publications associated with the Tools topic were published in 2014. The number of publications in recent years has grown for this topic, indicating maintained interest in agrivoltaic tools and models (Figure 7). Despite the precedent of this topic and growing research interest, it remained among the topics with the lowest number of total associated publications, indicating a research gap in the field of agrivoltaics.

Impact Assessments Topic

The Impact Assessments topic encompassed studies that evaluated agrivoltaic systems through quantitative and qualitative techniques to measure or estimate environmental-related outcomes. These types of assessments can provide insight into the role of agrivoltaics in reducing environmental burdens and enhancing the efficiency of resource use.

The topic included the following sub-topics: GHG Emissions/Reductions, Environmental/Climate LCA, Food-Water-Energy Nexus, and Land Impact/LER. These sub-topics, defined in

Table 16. Sub-topic definitions for the Impact Assessments topic.

Impact Assessments Sub-Topic	Sub-Topic Definition
GHG Emissions/Reductions	Greenhouse gas emissions associated with agrivoltaic systems
Environmental/Climate LCA	Life cycle assessments (LCAs) of agrivoltaic systems including the environmental or climate-related impacts
Food-Water-Energy Nexus	The intersection of the food-water-energy nexus and agrivoltaic systems
Land Impact/LER	Land use efficiency and land impacts of agrivoltaic systems, including studies that report measures of the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER)

, capture the range of impact-focused research included in the current body of literature.

Among the sub-topics, Land Impact/LER had the most associated publications (64), followed by GHG Emissions/Reductions (38), Environmental/Climate LCA (25) and Food-Water-Energy Nexus with 24 publications (Figure 28). The strong representation of Land Impact/LER studies reflects a central focus on land use efficiency in agrivoltaic systems and the early adoption of the LER concept in agrivoltaic literature. The number of publications in the sub-topics focused on greenhouse gases, life-cycle assessments, and the food-water-energy nexus indicate emerging research areas with potential for future research.

Methodological Comparisons Topic

The Methodological Comparisons topic was standalone, having no sub-topics, and was defined as follows: research methodologies and analytical approaches used to study agrivoltaic systems, aiming to identify best practices and gaps in current research. This topic was tied for the newest topic with the first associated publications being published in 2020 Figure 7. It also had among the fewest number of associated publications (14), highlighting it as one of the most underdeveloped areas in the field of agrivoltaics.

Given the variability in research methods and measurements across agrivoltaic studies, developing consistent and replicable methodologies, as well as understanding the tradeoffs among different approaches, is crucial for improving cross-study comparability and advancing best practices in research. Continued growth in this topic could help address current limitations in data synthesis and foster improved research designs of agrivoltaic systems.

Reviews and Informational Studies Topic

The Reviews and Informational Studies topic was standalone, having no sub-topics, and was defined as follows: review articles and informational studies that synthesize current knowledge, trends, and future directions in the field of agrivoltaics. This topic represented one of the most frequently published areas, with a total of 183 associated publications—among the highest across all topics (Figure 7). The first publication associated with this topic was released in 2011, placing it among the earliest of all topics to have associated publications in the data portal.

The high number of publications reflects the relatively early stage of agrivoltaics as a research domain, during which synthesis of existing knowledge and clarification of key research needs have been prioritized. Early contributions, such as Macknick et al. [20], emphasized the technical feasibility and potential benefits of co-locating solar energy and agricultural production. Subsequent reviews have expanded the scope of inquiry. For example, Al Mamun et al. [5] conducted a systematic review of 98 peer-reviewed and grey literature sources, identifying major research trends as well as persistent gaps, including limited work on financial modeling and large-scale livestock-integrated systems. A bibliometric review by Chalgynbayeva et al. [10] documented the rapid increase in publications since 2020 and analyzed thematic clusters across application types and geographic regions. Gomez-Casanovas et al. [15] summarized the state of knowledge on ecological and socio-economic outcomes, highlighting both potential synergies and areas of uncertainty, particularly regarding climate feedbacks, soil carbon, and economic viability. Other studies have focused on prospective applications and technological pathways; Klokov et al. [11] reviewed potential roles for agrivoltaics in precision agriculture and circular bioeconomy contexts, while Sarr et al. [12] and Touil et al. [13] examined panel configuration strategies and microclimate effects influencing crop outcomes. The continued prevalence of review articles suggests ongoing demand for integrative analyses to inform future research and implementation strategies as the field continues to evolve.

3.4. Modeling and Fieldwork Approaches

Agrivoltaics research incorporates a combination of modeling and fieldwork methodologies, with varying emphases across different topics. Figure 29 illustrates the distribution of studies that employ model data, field data, both, or neither, providing insights into how research is conducted across the field.

Most topics include a mix of model-based and field-based studies, with relatively few relying solely on field data alone. This suggests that agrivoltaic research frequently integrates empirical observations with computational modeling, either to simulate system performance before real-world implementation or to validate field results. Given the higher costs of agrivoltaic system deployment, modeling plays a role in assessing feasibility, optimizing designs, and predicting outcomes before investing in large-scale infrastructure.

Certain research areas have a particularly strong emphasis on modeling approaches. Topics such as Microclimatology, Market Assessments, Economics, PV Technologies, System Configuration, Siting, and Impact Assessments show a higher proportion of model-based studies. This trend is expected, as these areas often involve predictive simulations, economic feasibility analyses, energy output estimations, and land-use planning models.

Few studies rely solely on field data, reinforcing the idea that modeling is often used as a complementary tool. Some of the research areas that do have a relatively higher proportion of field-only studies include Soil, Plant Science, Microclimatology, and Social Perspectives. This may be due to the necessity of direct observations in soil health studies, crop performance evaluations, and social impact assessments, where qualitative and survey-based approaches are essential. In contrast, Reviews and Informational studies tend to lack novel field or model data, as these publications primarily synthesize existing findings.

The composition of research methodologies over time also reveals an important trend—while modeling studies and combined model-field approaches have consistently grown, field-only studies have remained relatively steady in proportion (Figure 30). This suggests that while empirical data collection remains important, researchers increasingly rely on modeling techniques to extrapolate findings, optimize designs, and assess feasibility at larger scales. Additionally, a significant proportion of recent studies fall into the “No Model or Field Data” category, which likely reflects the rise of review articles, policy analyses, and conceptual frameworks that synthesize existing knowledge rather than generating new data.

Overall, the integration of field experiments with modeling approaches remains a defining characteristic of agrivoltaic research. The desire for cost-effective, scalable, and predictive methodologies likely explains why modeling is widely employed across topics. However, continued real-world data collection is essential to refine models, validate assumptions, and ensure that agrivoltaic solutions are viable across a wide range of agricultural and climatic contexts.

3.5. Geographic Trends

Agrivoltaics has emerged as a global research focus, with studies conducted across all continents except Antarctica. However, regional variations in publication output reflect broader trends in renewable energy adoption, agricultural practices, and research funding. In some regions, agrivoltaics is transitioning from an experimental concept to mainstream implementation, while in others, the co-location of solar panels and agriculture remains largely unexplored. It is important to note that the geographic trends presented here are based solely on English-language publications, which may introduce biases by underrepresenting non-English-speaking research communities. Additionally, geographic attribution in this study is based on where research was conducted or applied, rather than the institutional affiliation of the authors. This distinction is important, as some research is conducted across multiple locations or applied at a global scale, which may not be fully captured in the data. Keeping these considerations in mind, the following sections explore continental, national, and U.S. state-level agrivoltaic research trends.

3.5.1. Research by Continent

Globally, agrivoltaic research has been heavily concentrated in the northern hemisphere, which accounted for nearly 18 times the number of English-language publications as the southern hemisphere (Figure 31). At the continental scale, the number of publications was nearly evenly distributed within each hemisphere, with Asia leading at 235 publications, followed closely by Europe (230), and North America (203). In contrast, Africa had 15 publications, South America had 12, and Oceania had 11. These global patterns of agrivoltaic research output closely mirror general trends in global research production, which tend to be split between the northern and southern hemispheres [21]. These patterns also align with known trends in agrivoltaic implementation as of the time of writing. It is important to note that the focus on English-language publications may have excluded some research, and the geographic distribution reflects where research was applied or conducted. Given these considerations, the apparent lack of research focus in the southern hemisphere should not be interpreted as a lack of potential. In fact, regions across South America, Africa, and Oceania feature abundant solar resources, diverse agroecosystems, and increasing demands for renewable energy, indicating strong potential for agrivoltaic system implementation and corresponding research.

3.5.2. Research by Country

At the country scale, we found that a few countries in North America, Europe, and Asia have been the epicenters of agrivoltaic research (Figure 32). The majority of agrivoltaic research in the world was centered on the United States (192 publications), over three times more publications than either of the two countries tied for the next highest publication count, China and Italy (56 publications each). We found nine additional countries that were the focus of at least 10 agrivoltaic research publications: Italy (56), India (41), Germany (35), France (28), Japan (26), Spain (23), Sweden (18), Malaysia (19), South Korea (14), and Indonesia (10). The outsize number of publications centered on the United States might be attributed to the focus on English-language publications, the large size of the country, the extent of agrivoltaic implementation in the country, and the active research funding and research activity in the country. The other countries with 10 or more agrivoltaic publications, alongside the U.S., could be considered as early leaders in the field of agrivoltaic research. Gaps existed in agrivoltaic research in large areas of Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East with one associated publication in many cases and no associated publications for most countries. Outside of the countries with strong agrivoltaic research focus mentioned above, the agrivoltaic concept remains poorly studied on a global scale. These gaps are largely explained by the novelty of the agrivoltaic concept, and we expect to see continued expansion of agrivoltaic research throughout the world.

3.5.3. Research by U.S. State

Focusing on the U.S., we identified a few states leading agrivoltaic research, with 28 states contributing at least one related publication (Figure 33). States with 10 or more publications included Oregon (23), Massachusetts (21), Colorado (16), Arizona and California (14 each), and Michigan (10). The southwestern U.S. emerged as the region with the highest concentration of agrivoltaic research, likely due to its abundant solar resource and environmental conditions that promote synergies within agrivoltaic systems [1,22]. Agrivoltaic research was also conducted across much of the Midwest and East Coast, with state-level policies likely playing a role in driving deployment and thus research in key states. However, gaps in research were observed in the western Midwest, most northwestern states, much of New England, and most of the southeastern U.S. These gaps are likely attributable to the novelty and absence of agrivoltaic and PV systems deployed.

3.6. Temporal Trends

Agrivoltaic research followed a slow trajectory until an acceleration around 2015. Prior to this, only a handful of papers were published each year. However, from 2015 onwards, agrivoltaic research experienced rapid growth. By 2020, the number of publications had exceeded 100, and the years following saw a surge, with hundreds of publications emerging annually. The distribution of publications across research categories remained relatively even until 2022, when a broader variation in the number of publications across categories became evident (Figure 34). Notably, there were few years in which the number of publications declined relative to the previous year, both at the category and topic levels. This trend may suggest that significant research gaps persist across all areas of agrivoltaics.

3.7. Research Linkages

Analysis of research linkages in agrivoltaics highlighted the most frequently co-occurring research topic pairs, with Microclimatology–Plant Science emerging as the most prevalent (155 occurrences) (Figure 35). Other highly linked pairs included Microclimatology–PV Technologies (133) and Microclimatology–System Configuration (131), reinforcing the central role of microclimatic conditions in agrivoltaic research. Additionally, several other topic pairs appeared in 50 or more publications, including Plant Science–PV Technologies (85), PV Technologies–System Configuration (78), Economics–Market Assessments (71), Plant Science–System Configuration (65), and Hydrology–Microclimatology (62). Other notable connections were observed between Economics and Plant Science (56), Hydrology and Plant Science (53), Economics and Microclimatology (51), Microclimatology and Soil (51), and Impact Assessment and Microclimatology (50).

Among all topics, Microclimatology exhibited the highest number of co-occurrences (762), reflecting its importance in understanding agrivoltaic system performance. Notably, Microclimatology also had the most topic pairs (seven) that co-occurred 50 or more times and was the only topic that intersected with every other category in at least one study. Plant Science (606), PV Technologies (523), and System Configuration (499) also demonstrated substantial linkages across a broad spectrum of topics, indicating the interdisciplinary nature of these research areas in the field of agrivoltaics.

Conversely, certain topics had minimal co-occurrences, suggesting gaps in the research landscape or potentially isolated research areas. Human Health (3), Wildlife (13), Entomology (41), Methodological Comparisons (45), and Livestock (53) were among the least connected topics. Particularly, Human Health remains an underexplored area, appearing only once in conjunction with Microclimatology, PV Technologies, and System Configuration. The limited research on Livestock primarily linked it to Microclimatology (9), Economics (7), Plant Science (6), and System Configuration (6). Interestingly, Entomology and Methodological Comparisons each co-occurred with Reviews/Informational seven times, indicating that a notable portion of research in these fields is based on synthesis studies rather than empirical investigations. These trends underscore opportunities for expanded research efforts in underrepresented areas to ensure a comprehensive understanding of agrivoltaic systems.

4. Discussion

Agrivoltaics research has rapidly grown over the past decade, with an especially pronounced increase over the past few years. As the field of agrivoltaics research is in a nascent state, certain lessons can be learned from the type of research that has been conducted to-date. These lessons can help inform improved research in the future. As agrivoltaic deployment continues to grow, research can play an increasing role in better informing design and investment decisions, policy, and technology selection. This assessment of the current state of research is intended to provide insights that can inform more strategic research projects and priorities.

4.1. Scale of Research

To-date, most agrivoltaic field research has been conducted on pilot-scale demonstration projects, rather than at commercial-scale projects [23,24,25,26]. These pilot-scale studies have provided foundational data and insights but inherently are limited in their representativeness of physical and operating conditions of commercial-scale projects. Pilot-scale projects are essential to learning more about fundamental processes and principles and to demonstrate initial feasibility but should be complemented by larger-scale projects that better represent systems that are deployed more widely. Pilot-scale experiments also might be affected more by edge effects, which could affect the reliability and transferability of the results. Commercial-scale projects can have specific challenges in terms of site control, uniformity of site conditions, and detailed partnerships that may not exist for pilot- or research-scale systems. These challenges must be balanced with research that is representative of deployed systems and research needs to reflect the specific conditions of larger, industry-led projects.

4.2. Research Duration

To provide initial data and outcomes on this emerging topic, there have been many studies published based on only one year of agrivoltaic field data [27,28,29], rather than multiple year studies that are standard in agriculture-focused fields. Insights from studies that do include multiple years can show substantial interannual variability based on local weather patterns, crop management practices, and other factors that influence metrics like crop yields [26]. The use of results from one year of growth could thus over- or underestimate impacts of agrivoltaic conditions on plant growth, soil characteristics, and microclimate conditions. Future research should prioritize long-term and multiple year studies that incorporate the uncertainty of interannual variations.

4.3. Research Topic Focus

Certain agrivoltaic topic areas have been researched substantially more than others. In particular, studies on microclimate, crop productivity and yields, PV generation, system configuration, and economic tradeoffs have seen greater numbers of publications than many other topics such as human health and livestock. In addition, there are a large number of review studies in this relatively nascent field. This partially reflects the opportunistic nature of agrivoltaics research thus far, as these heavily researched topics have already established and cost-effective methods for data collection, which can be readily collected from most sites. In many cases these topic areas do not require a control area or a pre-/post- comparison, which further enables them to be reported and published. Topic areas such as microclimatology and crop productivity and yields have been fundamental to understanding the basic science of agrivoltaic systems and the potential for this land-use strategy to be successful. The early abundance of research on these topics reflects a need to address those basic research questions first for various geographies and system configurations. Other topic areas, including impacts on human health, animal health, soil characteristics, plant phenology, among others, often require more time-intensive and pre-arranged research methods, which have not been common within the agrivoltaics literature to-date. Total numbers of studies on a particular topic do not necessarily represent the importance of a topic or the degree to which there is advanced understanding of that topic. For even the most studied topics like microclimate, there are still ample research gaps and opportunities for advanced research. However, this study has highlighted many topic areas where there are significant gaps and clear cases of research topics that have been understudied. As the agrivoltaics field develops, these understudied areas will be valuable to pursue, and in some cases, they might require new methods to be developed. Lastly, there are ongoing advancements in other fields (e.g., semi-transparent PV technology materials) that are not explicitly designed for agrivoltaic systems, but which could prove to be relevant if they are deployed in this context [30,31,32]. Inclusion of these other relevant topics could greatly expand the scope of the database.

4.4. Comprehensive Research Approaches Across Topics

There are relatively few studies that span multiple disciplines in agrivoltaic research, aside from well-established topics such as microclimate, system configuration, and PV generation. However, the inherently interdisciplinary nature of agrivoltaics—and the strong dependence of biological and physical outcomes on PV configurations—necessitates integrative studies that address multiple domains simultaneously to advance a holistic understanding of agrivoltaic systems. A notable gap lies in crop modeling, which requires agrivoltaic-specific inputs from both the physical sciences (e.g., hydrology, soil properties, irradiance, microclimate) and biological sciences (e.g., plant physiology, phenology). These inputs are then influenced by technological choices, including PV materials, system design, and operational practices. Current agrivoltaic crop models are constrained by limited field data, making it difficult to represent key processes accurately or validate model outputs. To improve predictive capacity, future research should prioritize comprehensive, multi-disciplinary field studies that generate the data needed to inform and calibrate these models.

4.5. Research Relevance

A challenge in any research field is ensuring research conducted is relevant to practitioners and other relevant stakeholders. As the agrivoltaics field is rapidly growing and evolving, this is a prominent issue for agrivoltaics research. Specifically, while the large number of studies addressing microclimate impacts and energy generation are useful, they are not necessarily the most pressing topics that are serving as barriers to deployment or those asked by practitioners. In particular, there is a strong interest in research outcomes that lead to practical resources, such as aids in crop selection, improved siting decisions, best practices for design and deployment, policy recommendations, and detailed cost and performance tradeoffs [33,34,35,36,37]. Many of these practical outcomes are dependent upon having a strong base of foundational information on a topic, which is lacking in many areas and can require multiple years of study across locations to develop a robust understanding. These practical outcomes also involve a unification of results across disciplines (e.g., connecting light availability, soil hydrology, plant responses, and economics) to appropriately address the complexity of the topic. Future research should aim to ensure that the eventual outcomes of the research are targeted to address key stakeholder research priorities, whether at the foundational science or more applied stage.

4.6. Research Methods

Despite agrivoltaics research having its foundation in both energy and agricultural sciences, there is a lack of standardization of research methods and protocols, in addition to metrics, utilized in the agrivoltaics research field. This lack of consistent metrics, methods, and boundary conditions can make research results from different studies difficult to compare, which further inhibits generalizations and key insights from research. Moreover, many fields require pre- and post-surveys and/or strict control environments, which can be difficult to arrange with solar projects, where project development success is a major uncertainty, project development can take multiple years in total, multiple land uses on-site up until construction, potential changes in companies/personnel during construction, site access challenges, and other unexpected factors that make having a robust experiment challenging. Standardized research methods combined with flexibility to account for the vagaries of the solar industry could help improve the robustness and comparability of agrivoltaics research.

4.7. Data Availabilty and Sharing

The challenges of a lack of standardized research methods and incomparability of data are compounded by a lack of a centralized repository or standardized metadata framework for storing agrivoltaics research data and making it accessible to researchers. Metadata on agrivoltaics data, including information regarding location, soil, configuration, cultivation methods, etc. are essential to appropriately understanding and contextualizing data. A common agrivoltaics data repository, including robust metadata standards, could greatly increase the efficacy and usefulness of synthesis studies and facilitate work towards actionable research outcomes like agrivoltaic crop model development.

4.8. Inherent Research Challenges of Agrivoltaics

A number of factors will continue to make agrivoltaics research challenging into the future. In particular, prior land-uses, adjacent land-uses, and onsite conditions can have a substantial impact on the agricultural and energy performance of an agrivoltaic system, which can complicate research outcome insights. Moreover, in this emerging field, there is a lot of necessary experimenting in practice and adapting agrivoltaic operations each year for practical purposes, without necessarily adhering to strict controls of scientific experiments that allow for comparison. Agrivoltaics research at commercial facilities will also face challenges associated with collecting appropriate data that does not substantially affect or alter management practices. Lastly, the nebulous nature of agrivoltaics definitions across political jurisdictions can also complicate research, as this could affect boundary conditions of research, direct research towards narrowly defined agrivoltaic configurations and conditions, or otherwise limit the type of research performed. Transparently addressing and accounting for these challenges will be essential in future research prioritization.

4.9. Prioritizing Future Research

The presence of large numbers of publications on a topic does not imply the field has adequate research that enables a detailed understanding of underlying processes, nor does a lack of publications in one area imply an inherent prioritization for future research in that topic. This effort identified the number of studies providing novel data and conducting research on specific topics but does not provide a qualitative assessment of the value or impact of any specific study, or of the collection of literature as a whole. In general, it is likely that all areas of research identified in this review would benefit from additional research, especially studies with methods that are replicated across geographies. Research prioritization efforts could be well-served by a collaborative approach that includes perspectives across sectors and research disciplines. Involving practitioners, policymakers, and other relevant stakeholders beyond researchers would ensure that key fundamental science questions are tied directly to specific questions and priorities of those currently shaping the field. Undertaking research prioritization activities with these varied stakeholders and disciplines would also help address many of the challenges identified above, and this could lead to synergies across researchers in terms of instrumentation and study designs. Research prioritization activities should also be firmly based in established academic fields (e.g., crop sciences, soil sciences, animal sciences, energy systems, etc.), with the recognition that agrivoltaic conditions can lead to different outcomes compared to open-air environments. Detailed research priorities could be summarized through topic-specific and subtopic-specific roadmaps, with unifying activities highlighting connections across these groups. Although regulations, soils, and markets can vary greatly across national boundaries, many fundamental scientific relationships will persist, and international collaboration can encourage more widespread adoption and agreement of research priorities.

5. Conclusions

The state of agrivoltaics research has expanded significantly over the past decade, reflecting increasing recognition of its potential to address land-use conflicts while simultaneously contributing to solar energy generation and agricultural productivity. The systematic review presented in this article highlights both the breadth and depth of research efforts across multiple domains, including microclimate dynamics, crop productivity, PV system optimization, economic feasibility, policy and regulatory considerations, and social impacts. Despite this rapid growth, several gaps remain that could benefit from targeted investigation to facilitate the broader adoption and optimization of agrivoltaic systems.

A key finding from this assessment is the disproportionate focus on certain research areas, particularly those related to microclimatic conditions, plant science, and PV performance. While these topics form the foundation of agrivoltaic system design, other important aspects—such as long-term soil health impacts, biodiversity implications, and social acceptance—remain relatively underexplored. Additionally, research on the economic viability of agrivoltaic systems, including cost-benefit trade-offs, market integration, and financial risk mitigation strategies, is essential for determining the adoption potential of agrivoltaic systems and also lacks comprehensive scholarship. The disconnect between research emphasis and real-world agrivoltaic deployment further underscores the need for more applied studies that reflect practical implementation challenges, particularly at commercial and utility scales.

Methodological limitations also persist in agrivoltaics research, with many studies relying on short-term or pilot-scale experiments that may not fully capture the variability of agronomic and environmental responses. Longitudinal studies that span multiple growing seasons and a range of geographic regions are needed to improve predictive modeling capabilities and enhance the generalizability of research findings. Moreover, standardization in data collection, analytical methods, and performance evaluation metrics would facilitate cross-study comparisons and improve the reliability of agrivoltaic system assessments.

The findings of this report emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration to advance agrivoltaic research. Given the inherent complexity of integrating agricultural and energy systems, future research should incorporate expertise across agronomy, engineering, economics, ecology, and social sciences. Stakeholder engagement—including input from farmers, policymakers, energy developers, and land-use planners—will help ensure that research efforts align with real-world needs and priorities. Furthermore, international coordination can help establish best practices and accelerate knowledge-sharing to facilitate agrivoltaic adoption in a wide range of environmental and regulatory contexts.

Ultimately, while agrivoltaics presents a promising pathway for dual land use, further research is required to optimize system designs, quantify benefits and trade-offs, and inform relevant policies. Addressing existing knowledge gaps through rigorous, interdisciplinary, and long-term studies will help enable agrivoltaics to contribute meaningfully to global agricultural and energy production.