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Review

A Review on the Technologies and Efficiency of Harvesting Energy from Pavements

by
Shijing Chen
1,
Luxi Wei
2,3,
Chan Huang
2,3 and
Yinghong Qin
2,3,*
1
Nanning Communications Investment Group Co., Ltd., No. 2, Tongda East Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning 530022, China
2
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guangxi Minzu University, 188 University Road, Nanning 530006, China
3
Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Monitoring and Testing of Engineering Operation and Maintenance, Guangxi Minzu University, 188 University Road, Nanning 530006, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(15), 3959; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153959
Submission received: 11 May 2025 / Revised: 8 June 2025 / Accepted: 12 June 2025 / Published: 24 July 2025
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Abstract

Dark asphalt surfaces, absorbing about 95% of solar radiation and warming to 60–70 °C during summer, intensify urban heat while providing substantial prospects for energy extraction. This review evaluates four primary technologies—asphalt solar collectors (ASCs, including phase change material (PCM) integration), photovoltaic (PV) systems, vibration-based harvesting, thermoelectric generators (TEGs)—focusing on their principles, efficiencies, and urban applications. ASCs achieve up to 30% efficiency with a 150–300 W/m2 output, reducing pavement temperatures by 0.5–3.2 °C, while PV pavements yield 42–49% efficiency, generating 245 kWh/m2 and lowering temperatures by an average of 6.4 °C. Piezoelectric transducers produce 50.41 mW under traffic loads, and TEGs deliver 0.3–5.0 W with a 23 °C gradient. Applications include powering sensors, streetlights, and de-icing systems, with ASCs extending pavement life by 3 years. Hybrid systems, like PV/T, achieve 37.31% efficiency, enhancing UHI mitigation and emissions reduction. Economically, ASCs offer a 5-year payback period with a USD 3000 net present value, though PV and piezoelectric systems face cost and durability challenges. Environmental benefits include 30–40% heat retention for winter use and 17% increased PV self-use with EV integration. Despite significant potential, high costs and scalability issues hinder adoption. Future research should optimize designs, develop adaptive materials, and validate systems under real-world conditions to advance sustainable urban infrastructure.

1. Introduction

The global demand for sustainable energy solutions has surged with growing urban populations and the environmental and economic challenges of fossil fuel dependency. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and geothermal, are vital to meeting these needs, yet their integration into dense urban environments is complex. Pavements, covering 30–40% of urban surface areas, offer a largely untapped resource for renewable energy harvesting due to their exposure to solar radiation [1,2], vehicle-induced mechanical stresses [3,4], and thermal gradients [5]. These surfaces absorb approximately 95% of incident solar energy, reaching temperatures of 60–70 °C in summer [2], while their dark-colored surfaces generate significant thermal energy, and traffic induces mechanical vibrations. These diverse energy forms—solar, thermal, and mechanical—can be captured using technologies like asphalt solar collectors (Figure 1a), photovoltaic pavements (Figure 1b), piezoelectric transducers (Figure 1c), and thermoelectric generators (Figure 1d), enabling on-site power for urban infrastructure, such as streetlights, traffic sensors, or electric vehicle charging, or supplementing broader energy grids to reduce reliance on non-renewable sources [6,7]. Despite their potential, challenges, such as high installation costs, environmental stressors like rainwater intrusion, and variable performance across climates, highlight the need for systematic comparisons of these technologies to optimize their efficiency and feasibility [8,9].
Harnessing pavement heat for energy generation offers a dual-purpose solution: simultaneously alleviating UHI impacts and advancing sustainable energy production. Wang et al. [10] evaluated thermoelectric, piezoelectric, and photovoltaic pavement technologies by comparing their energy performance and applications. Technologies such as asphalt solar collectors, photovoltaic pavements, vibration-based energy harvesting, TEGs, and piezoelectric systems can convert thermal or mechanical energy into electricity, reducing pavement temperatures (e.g., by 5–12 °C with ASCs or PV systems [11]) while powering urban infrastructure like streetlights, traffic sensors, or electric vehicle charging stations [12]. For example, ASCs can achieve heat collection efficiencies of 25–35% [13], and advanced PV pavements have demonstrated power conversion efficiencies of 42–49% [11]. By leveraging the extensive surface area of urban roads, these technologies transform pavements into multifunctional energy assets, reducing fossil fuel dependency and supporting smart city frameworks. Zhao et al. [14] reviewed green energy harvesting from roads, focusing on photovoltaic, thermoelectric, direct heat transfer, and piezoelectric methods and emphasizing their potential for urban heat reduction but noting scalability challenges. In contrast, Pei et al. [15] analyzed roadway-specific technologies like photovoltaic, thermoelectric, and piezoelectric systems, providing a detailed evaluation of their efficiencies and integration challenges in transportation infrastructure. Sucupira [16] explored solar and thermal energy harvesting for civil engineering applications, with a broader focus on building facades, roofs, and pavements, highlighting the need for advanced materials to improve efficiency. Zhu et al. [17] specifically investigated thermoelectric energy harvesting from asphalt pavements using the Seebeck effect, detailing liquid and solid system configurations and proposing future research on spin Seebeck effect-based TEGs to enhance performance. While these studies collectively underscore the promise of pavement energy harvesting, their varied scopes—ranging from broad civil engineering applications to specific roadway systems—reveal gaps in comparative analysis and practical implementation strategies, necessitating a unified evaluation.
To bridge these gaps, this review systematically evaluates four primary energy-harvesting technologies—asphalt solar collectors, photovoltaics, vibration energy, and thermoelectric generators—focusing on their operational principles, efficiencies, and practical feasibility in urban settings. It provides a detailed comparison of their performance metrics, technical limitations, and integration challenges, such as high installation costs for PV pavements or durability concerns for piezoelectric transducers. The objective is to offer a comprehensive analysis that identifies critical bottlenecks, proposes actionable research directions, and supports the advancement of sustainable urban infrastructure.
To facilitate understanding, this review is structured into five core parts: (i) technology fundamentals (Section 2), (ii) practical applications (Section 3), (iii) system integration and benefits (Section 4), (iv) feasibility and challenges (Section 5), and (v) future research priorities (Section 6). Within Section 2, the technologies are grouped by energy source and conversion mechanism: solar-based methods—asphalt solar collectors (thermal) and photovoltaic pavements (electrical)—are presented first, followed by mechanical and thermal-electric systems, including vibration-based harvesters and thermoelectric generators.
By synthesizing current advancements and outlining pathways for innovation, this study aims to accelerate the adoption of pavement energy harvesting as a viable solution for energy-efficient cities. Table 1 offers a comparative summary of structural components, energy mechanisms, and performance indicators.

2. Energy-Harvesting Technologies and Efficiency

2.1. Asphalt Solar Collectors

2.1.1. Buried Water Pipes

Buried water pipes represent a practical approach to harvesting solar energy from asphalt pavements by embedding highly conductive pipes beneath the surface to circulate fluid, typically water or a water–antifreeze mixture [18]. Pioneering work by Sedgwick and Patrick [19] showcased the viability of warming a UK swimming pool by embedding a network of plastic pipes 20 mm beneath an asphalt tennis court, establishing its economic advantage over traditional solar heating systems. Hasebe et al. (2006) [20] advanced this concept, generating electric power via thermoelectric generators using temperature differences between warm water from pavement pipes and cool river water, with output power increasing significantly as the outlet water temperature rose (0.3–5.0 W depending on the flow rate and temperature gradient).
Recent studies have enhanced system efficiency. Mallick et al. [21] showed that pipes embedded 40 mm below the surface, combined with black acrylic paint and quartz-rich aggregates, increased the water temperature rise by 50% and 100%, respectively, while reducing the near-surface air temperature by up to 10 °C, as validated by finite-element modeling and small-scale lab tests [21]. Heat collection capacity ranges from 150 to 300 W/m2 in summer, which is sufficient for winter snowmelt, with efficiencies of up to 30% influenced by pipe arrangement and fluid parameters [13]. Increasing flow rates boosts efficiency and lowers the pavement temperature [22], though peak stresses and strains around pipes may reduce the system’s lifespan [23]. Without additional heating, snowmelt applications remain limited [23].
Economic feasibility varies by region, with payback periods rising with latitude and viability tied to high solar radiation areas [24]. The stem consumes minimal electrical energy for pumping compared to harvested heat [2], and thermal energy potential, while lower than traditional solar water heaters [25], improves with high pavement thermal conductivity and solar absorptivity [21]. Pipe diameter and flow rate significantly affect heat extraction zones, with diameter having a greater impact than flow rate [26]. For snowmelt, larger diameters, shallower depths, and closer spacing enhance performance, though structural impacts must be considered [27].

2.1.2. Buried Air Ducts

Buried air ducts utilize natural air as the heat transfer fluid within asphalt pavements, leveraging the chimney effect to extract and harness solar energy. This approach entails linking engineered cavities within the pavement to a vertical chimney, allowing heated air to ascend and pull cooler air through an intake, facilitating airflow through the pavement structure [28]. This process cools the pavement while venting heated air through the chimney, which can be equipped with a wind turbine for renewable energy generation, potentially integrated into street lighting posts [28]. A prototype demonstrated by García and Partl [29] illustrates this mechanism, showing air entering at a low-elevation inlet, absorbing heat as it passes through the pavement, and exiting via the chimney.
Initial designs indicate that a single air-convecting channel yields a low airflow rate of approximately 0.58 m/s [28]. To enhance the cooling capacity and energy-harvesting efficiency, multiple air channels at varying depths, connected in parallel, are proposed [29]. This configuration increases the airflow through the chimney, driving solar turbines for power production [29]. Field evaluations by Chiarelli et al. (2017) [30] confirm that air convection systems can release 30–40% of the retained heat, supporting applications like winter snowmelt. The harvested energy depends on the system’s ability to maximize air circulation and heat transfer, with potential turbine outputs varying based on chimney height and ambient conditions, though specific power generation figures remain under investigation [28].

2.1.3. Optimized Pavement Design for Enhanced Solar Energy Collection

The porous middle layer approach offers an alternative to pipe-based systems by utilizing a multilayered pavement structure to harvest solar energy without embedded pipes. Developed by Pascual-Muñoz et al. (2013) [31], this technology features a highly porous middle layer sandwiched between two impervious asphalt layers. Water circulates through the porous layer, absorbing heat conducted downward from the sun-warmed surface. The extracted hot water can be used for electricity generation or domestic hot water supply [31]. Laboratory tests demonstrate exceptional thermal efficiencies, ranging from 75% to 95%, depending on solar irradiance (from a solar lamp), the porosity of the intermediate layer, and the collector’s slope. Higher porosity enhances water flow and heat transfer, while increased irradiance and optimized slope further boost efficiency. This method leverages the pavement’s natural thermal mass and eliminates the structural complexities of pipe networks, offering a promising solution for scalable energy harvesting.
Phase change materials (PCMs) enhance thermal storage in asphalt pavements by absorbing and releasing heat during phase transitions, offering a robust solution for energy harvesting and temperature regulation. Initial studies enhanced PCM characteristics, with graphite/polyethylene glycol mixtures boosting the thermal conductivity of asphalt binders [32] and lauric acid/asphalt combinations showcasing phase change potential for construction purposes [33]. Modern advancements include flame-retardant PCM composites based on MXene skeletons, achieving a thermal conductivity of 0.486 W·m−1·K−1 and reducing peak heat release by 42.8% [34]. Integrating PCMs with silica aerogels and radiation cooling technology lowers modified asphalt daytime temperatures by up to 8.7 °C, with a phase change enthalpy of 173.2 J/g [35]. Hybrid systems combining PCMs with thermal collectors achieve energy densities of 150–200 kWh/m3, supporting smart city energy management [36].
In practical applications, a polyethylene glycol graft copolymer (PPGC-PCM) at 7.5–10% addition enhances asphalt mixture crack resistance (flexural tensile strain +16.2%) and thermal insulation (stability +8.86%), though it weakens mechanical strength [37]. Geothermal integration with fifth-generation district heating and cooling networks boosts sustainability, though benefits require further quantification [38]. Challenges include thermal stability, leakage prevention, and large-scale validation, with nano-encapsulation and chemical modifications improving performance, yet long-term cyclic stability under complex conditions remains under investigation [39]. DSC testing with a trapezoidal hysteresis dynamic model improves simulation accuracy by 20–40%, aiding real-world thermal behavior analysis [39].

2.2. Photovoltaic Systems

2.2.1. Photovoltaic Pavements

Photovoltaic pavements replace traditional pavement surfaces with solar panels to convert solar radiation into electricity, leveraging advances in photovoltaic materials. Flexible thin-film solar cells, such as copper–indium–gallium–selenide, offer cost-effective options but face challenges from chemical attacks and mechanical loads on high-traffic asphalt surfaces, making them better suited for low-traffic areas like medians [36]. In 2014, Northmore [40] introduced a layered solar road panel design, featuring a robust, clear surface layer, a middle layer with integrated photovoltaic cells for energy generation, and a foundation layer for distributing power. Tested in Canadian conditions, this prototype withstands structural and environmental loads, validating its potential. Laboratory development continues to refine layer integration and durability [40]. Recent laboratory prototypes [41], integrating solar cells within rubber-based layered structures, demonstrated a power conversion efficiency of 5.34% and enhanced rutting resistance. Performance under wet conditions was also promising, maintaining adequate surface drainage (0.042 L/s) and friction levels (BPT = 47.8), indicating their potential for dual structural and energy functions.
Practical implementations feature the first pedestrian solar panel walkway at George Washington University [42], yet widespread road installations face high costs and structural uncertainties. Although photovoltaic pavements tap into extensive roadway areas for energy harvesting, their early-stage development is hindered by design complexities, performance variability, and limited economic viability [43]. In Sweden, perovskite solar cell (PSC) technology on highways achieves 42–49% solar energy utilization efficiency, generating 245 kWh/m2 (Table 2), while reducing pavement temperatures by an average of 6.4 °C (maximum 10 °C) [11]. PV noise barriers along Italian highways yield a 20 MWp installed capacity and 2 GWh annually, with an energy payback time of 5.4 years against a 20–30-year lifespan [44]. However, high costs and long payback periods limit load-bearing applications, with optimal potential in wide, unshaded streets [45,46].

2.2.2. Challenges

Pavement-integrated photovoltaic systems encounter both technical and economic limitations. For instance, cost-effective thin-film technologies such as copper–indium–gallium–selenide are susceptible to chemical degradation and mechanical damage due to repeated vehicle loads, making them more suitable for low-traffic zones like road medians instead of heavily used asphalt roads [14]. Structural durability remains a concern, as large-scale solar road panel deployments are still experimental, with uncertainties in long-term sustainability and load-bearing capacity [42]. For instance, Northmore’s modular panel design requires further field validation beyond laboratory settings to ensure resilience against environmental and traffic stresses in regions like Canada [40,49]. Hu et al. [9] note that while they can support sustainable transport, current high costs and installation challenges hinder their widespread adoption; hollow slab designs offer better economic performance but still fall short of profitability over 20 years.
Understanding stakeholder perceptions and contextual barriers is crucial for advancing the practical deployment of solar pavements, especially in regions with distinct environmental and institutional challenges [50]. Economic viability poses another hurdle. When used as load-bearing structures, PV pavements exhibit low cost-effectiveness and extended payback periods, often exceeding practical investment horizons [46]. For example, despite generating 5.2–6.6 TWh/y on Dutch highways with 880 kWh/m2/y radiation potential [51], high installation costs hinder their widespread adoption. In urban settings, narrow streets and shading reduce photovoltaic potential, with wide, unshaded north–south or west-facing streets offering the highest yields [45]. Technical performance is also affected by installation factors; PV noise barriers (PVNBs) producing 5000 kWh annually and 680 GWh/y across Europe depend on the coverage area, orientation, and sunlight intensity yet lack unified quality standards for integration with acoustic functions [52,53]. Additionally, heat dissipation challenges persist, though combining PV with thermal systems doubles primary energy-saving efficiency compared to traditional modules [54], requiring further optimization to balance cost and performance.

2.3. Vibration-Based Harvesting

2.3.1. Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezoelectric transducers harvest electricity from vehicle-induced pavement deformation, converting mechanical strain and kinetic energy into electrical power for applications like wireless sensor networks and structural health monitoring [55,56]. Embedded directly into pavements, these transducers leverage the piezoelectric effect, with outputs varying by design and traffic conditions [57,58]. The Waynergy system generates 525 J/h (0.15 Wh) during peak pedestrian hours [47], while a 150 mm × 150 mm device under heavy traffic (0.7 MPa, 15 Hz) produces 50.41 mW at an optimal load of 4 kΩ [59]. Laboratory tests show energy density second only to photovoltaics, with the 33-mode (compression) outperforming the 31-mode (lateral displacement) due to its linear power response to deformation [60]. Similarly, lab work reported by Papagiannakis et al. [61] found that under a one-time loading by a 44.48-kN truck tire, the produced electrical power ranges from 1.0 to 1.8 watts. Lab-based disk-structured piezoelectric units using the PZT-5H material have demonstrated peak voltages of 65.2 V and daily outputs up to 0.8 kWh, which is sufficient to independently power roadside signal lights [4]. Liu et al. [62] designed a piezoelectric array for traffic sensing and energy capture, analyzing its performance under varying loads, speeds, and temperatures. Tests and simulations guided the optimal element configuration, insulation, and polyurethane thickness to enhance signal strength and efficiency. Recent advances in piezoelectric system modeling reveal that tailoring material and circuit parameters through a universal scaling approach can significantly improve power output efficiency across diverse traffic and loading scenarios [63]. Various traffic conditions are analyzed to convert this output into usable energy. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) ranges from USD 0.08–0.20/kWh, though uncertainties persist [64,65].

2.3.2. Durability

Durability is a critical factor for vibration-based energy harvesting, particularly for piezoelectric transducers embedded in pavements subjected to millions of vehicle load cycles. These devices face fatigue failure over time, necessitating protective measures. Encapsulation in concrete blocks [66], marble cubes [47], or mortar pieces [67] shields transducers from mechanical stress, enhancing their longevity. A new-type piezoelectric energy harvester tested at 0.7 MPa and 20 Hz demonstrates robust performance, maintaining 97.4% of its open-circuit voltage (only a 2.6% decrease) after 500,000 loading cycles, with a pavement rut depth of 2.1 mm [68]. This durability supports a power density of 0.0926 mW/cm3, indicating resilience under sustained traffic conditions [68].
Durability is enhanced by protective coverings like concrete blocks [66], marble cubes [47,69], or mortar pieces [67,70], with a new-type harvester (PEH) delivering 0.0926 mW/cm3 under 0.7 MPa-20 Hz excitation and retaining 97.4% of its voltage after 500,000 cycles (rut depth 2.1 mm) [68]. Optimized designs double the electrical performance under traffic loads without significant damage to the surrounding pavement [65]. Output varies with device size and conditions: a tile transducer at 6 Hz and 0.7 MPa yields 24.5 times the power of a planar transducer [71], while a road-compatible harvester at 80 km/h achieves 16.31 W under 0.1 kΩ [72,73]. Vehicle speed, transducer spacing (minimum energy at 0.7 m), and traffic density influence efficiency, with optimal designs aligning piezoelectric length to 10% of the tire–road contact area [74,75]
Optimized designs further improve endurance. A tile transducer, after 360,000 cycles at 6 Hz and 0.7 MPa, shows no significant voltage drop, outperforming planar transducers by 24.5 times in power output, highlighting its structural integrity [71]. Field-tested devices withstand vehicle loads without notable damage to the surrounding pavement materials, doubling electrical performance over time [65]. These advancements suggest that with proper material selection and protective strategies, piezoelectric systems can achieve long-term reliability, though ongoing research is needed to validate scalability and performance under diverse environmental conditions.

2.4. Thermoelectric Generators

TEGs harvest energy from pavements by converting thermal gradients into electricity via the Seebeck effect, where a temperature difference across metallic or semiconducting materials generates voltage [17,76]. Guo and Lu [77], who compared piezoelectric and thermoelectric technologies, found that thermoelectric systems, especially pipe-assisted designs, offer higher energy output and better cost-effectiveness, making them more suitable for large-scale pavement energy harvesting than piezoelectric transducers. Xie et al. [78] developed a thermoelectric generator for roads, demonstrating that output increases significantly with greater temperature differences and shallower burial. Field tests confirmed stable performance even with pavement defects, highlighting its practicality for real-world energy harvesting. Asphalt surfaces under solar radiation can reach 60–70 °C in summer [76], while sub-grade or ambient air remains substantially cooler, creating a natural vertical temperature gradient. Thermoelectric modules—typically consisting of n-type and p-type Bi2Te3 couples—are embedded between the hot pavement surface and a heat sink below. Heat flowing through the module generates direct current (DC) via the Seebeck effect [17,76]. This solid-state process requires no moving parts, making TEGs environmentally benign and low-maintenance, ideal for capturing “free” waste heat from asphalt surfaces that can reach 60–70 °C in summer [76]. The system leverages the natural thermal gradient between the hot pavement surface and cooler sub-grade layers, with efficiency dependent on the magnitude of this temperature difference and the thermoelectric material properties [20]. For instance, a commercial TEG module under a 200 °C gradient produces approximately 50 μW, as per manufacturer specifications [76], while lab setups with hot water flow achieve outputs of 0.3–5.0 W, varying with flow rate and temperature differential between hot and cool water sources [20]. Similarly, Jiang et al. [79] developed a thermoelectric power system for asphalt roads, showing that it can generate 0.4–0.7 V under typical temperature differences. Field data and tests confirm its potential, especially in warm regions, for efficient road-based energy harvesting. Scalable deployment is enabled by organic semiconducting polymers, offering low-cost, large-area solutions for pavement integration [14].
Thermoelectric generators offer distinct advantages for pavement energy harvesting due to their solid-state design and operational simplicity. A primary benefit is the absence of moving parts, eliminating mechanical wear and reducing maintenance needs, which enhances reliability for long-term deployment in harsh pavement environments [76]. This feature, combined with their ability to capture “free” waste heat from asphalt surfaces reaching 60–70 °C in summer, positions TEGs as an environmentally benign solution with a minimal ecological footprint. Their scalability is supported by the use of organic semiconducting polymers, enabling low-cost, large-area integration into pavements without significant structural disruption [14]. Field tests demonstrate practical utility, with a TEG system charging a 5F supercapacitor, which is sufficient to power automatic streetlights, within 3 h under a 23 °C temperature gradient [80]. Additionally, TEGs can amplify low-millivolt outputs (e.g., 50 μW at a 200 °C gradient [76]) to usable levels for sensor applications, showcasing their versatility in powering infrastructure monitoring systems with minimal energy input [76].

3. Applications of Harvested Energy

3.1. Direct Electricity

Energy harvested from pavements in the form of electricity can be directly utilized for localized, low-power applications, leveraging the outputs of piezoelectric transducers, photovoltaic systems, and TEGs. Piezoelectric systems produce ultra-low power, such as 525 joules/hour (0.15 Wh) from the Waynergy system during peak pedestrian traffic [81] or 50.41 mW from a 150 mm × 150 mm device under 0.7 MPa and 15 Hz traffic loads [59], making them suitable for powering wireless sensor networks and structural health monitoring devices [57]. A road-compatible piezoelectric harvester achieves up to 16.31 W at 80 km/h under a 0.1 kΩ load, enabling LED lighting systems [73]. Photovoltaic pavements, like those using perovskite solar cells, generate significant electricity—5.2–6.6 TWh/y across Dutch highways with 245 kWh/m2 in summer [11]—supporting road sensors, signage illumination, or advertisement posts [42]. TEGs contribute smaller outputs, such as 50 μW at a 200 °C gradient or 0.3–5.0 W with optimized water flow [20], making them sufficient to periodically blink LEDs or charge a 5F supercapacitor in 3 h for streetlights [80]. This electricity is typically transmitted via wires to nearby points of use or consumed locally for signage and low-power LED arrangements, offering immediate, practical energy solutions.

3.2. Thermal Uses

Heat energy extracted from pavements offers versatile thermal applications by utilizing the significant quantities captured by asphalt solar collectors and related systems. One key use is in absorption and adsorption chillers for air conditioning, where low-grade heat drives cooling cycles, making them particularly effective in solar-rich regions [82]. Domestic and commercial building heating is viable, though it often requires seasonal storage due to limited solar availability in winter; geothermal coupling with buried pipes retains 30–40% of summer heat for this purpose [30]. Hot water production for residential, commercial, and industrial needs is another application, with ASCs raising water temperatures by 4.0–13.6 °C [48]. Thermal desalination for water purification leverages this heat, with established low-grade energy systems processing significant volumes [83].
De-icing pavements in winter is a prominent use, especially with ASCs melting snow and ice using water at approximately 25 °C, reducing energy waste by 30% when thermal conductivity increases from 1.531 W/m·K to 2.309 W/m·K [3]. Single-pass ASC systems achieve 21.9% efficiency compared to 10.9% for closed-loop designs, lowering road surface temperatures by 0.5–3.2 °C and extending pavement life by 3 years (Table 3) [48]. Seasonal thermal storage supports small residential heating demands economically, enhancing ground-source heat pump efficiency and reducing fossil fuel use and carbon emissions [84]. These applications highlight the potential of harvested heat, though cost–benefit justification remains critical for widespread adoption [48].

4. Technical Synergies and Integration

4.1. Hybrid Systems

Hybrid systems integrating multiple energy-harvesting technologies enhance efficiency and functionality in pavement applications. Siebert [85] explores combining asphalt solar collectors with ground source heat pumps for residential heating in Sweden. Modeling and analysis show that the hybrid system can meet energy demands efficiently while offering environmental and economic advantages over traditional heating methods. Alessandro et al. [86] demonstrated that combining road thermal collectors with borehole energy storage can efficiently supply building heat in Mediterranean climates, achieving high seasonal storage efficiency and significantly reducing borehole length compared to traditional geothermal systems. Combining asphalt solar collectors with phase change materials and embedded fluid pipelines achieves energy densities of 150–200 kWh/m3, enabling thermal storage and surface temperature regulation while requiring further structural impact studies [28]. Piezoelectric and thermoelectric combinations increase the power output per unit area, addressing intermittency in single systems; theoretical efficiencies exceed standalone methods, though practical applications remain in prototype stages that need cost-effectiveness validation [87]. For instance, a thermoelectric device with a 23 °C gradient charges a 5F supercapacitor in 3 h [80], while piezoelectric outputs reach 50.41 mW under 0.7 MPa and 15 Hz [59], suggesting complementary potential. Photovoltaic–thermal systems, such as the pavement-integrated system, achieve a comprehensive energy efficiency of 37.31%, nearly doubling the primary energy-saving efficiency of traditional photovoltaic modules by managing heat dissipation and reducing long-wave radiation to mitigate the urban heat island effect [54]. Integrating photovoltaic with electric vehicle charging boosts self-use rates by 17%, cutting emissions and costs [12]. Hybrid solar-road and soil-regenerator systems optimize energy output, with sensitivity analyses indicating high short-term potential despite corrosion challenges in steel components [88]. These synergies reduce reliance on salt and fossil fuels, lowering carbon emissions, though long-term efficiency and structural durability require further exploration [84].

4.2. Urban Benefits

Integrated energy-harvesting systems in pavements deliver significant urban benefits, particularly in alleviating the urban heat island effect and improving environmental sustainability. Asphalt solar collectors with buried pipes reduce near-surface air temperatures by up to 10 °C [21], while photovoltaic–thermal systems like PIPVT achieve 37.31% comprehensive energy efficiency, lowering pavement surface temperatures by 0.5–3.2 °C and long-wave radiation to the environment [48,54]. Perovskite solar cells further decrease pavement temperatures by 6.4–10 °C (average: 6.4 °C and maximum: 10 °C), alleviating urban heat islands in high-radiation areas [11]. PCM integration with asphalt solar collectors reduces daytime asphalt temperatures by up to 8.7 °C, enhancing microclimate regulation [35].
These systems also reduce the environmental impact. Seasonal thermal storage from asphalt solar collectors retains 30–40% of summer heat for winter use, boosting ground-source heat pump efficiency and cutting fossil fuel consumption and carbon emissions [30]. Photovoltaic–electric vehicle integration increases self-use rates by 17%, reducing emissions and urban energy costs [12]. Piezoelectric and TEG hybrids power sensors and lighting (e.g., 50.41 mW at 0.7 MPa and 15 Hz [59] and a 5F supercapacitor charged in 3 h [80]), supporting smart infrastructure without additional grid reliance. Collectively, these synergies decrease salt and fuel use for de-icing and heating, offering sustainable urban energy management solutions [84].

5. Feasibility and Challenges

5.1. Construction Issues

Integrating energy harvesting systems into pavements poses significant construction challenges, as pavements are designed for safe and durable transportation, not energy collection. Embedding systems like fluid-filled pipes or piezoelectric transducers disrupts pavement layer functions, requiring designs that minimize structural compromise [89]. Maintenance operations like milling—which involves removing surface layers for in-lay installation—should avoid harming components installed below the expected milling depth. Overlays, on the other hand, reduce thermal effectiveness by increasing separation from the heat source, making in-laying a more favorable approach. These systems also need to tolerate minor tensile, compressive, and bending stresses caused by traffic and environmental conditions, all while minimizing disruption to regular maintenance routines.
Urban settings complicate placement, as utility services beneath pavements limit viable locations, often restricting systems to parking areas not covered by parked vehicles for extended periods. Connections to harvesting arrays require accessible edge designs, altering kerb or ditch arrangements to accommodate pumping and ancillary equipment [89]. Contact between pipes and the surrounding pavement materials creates porous structures during compaction, reducing heat transfer efficiency; solutions like grouting, fine mastic asphalt, or pipe fins are proposed to enhance the contact area [89]. Retrofitting into existing pavements is challenging, with surface-installed PV or piezoelectric systems needing minimal preparation, while heat exchanger grooves demand deep cuts that are potentially uneconomical. Preformed overlays with embedded exchangers remain conceptual, highlighting a large opportunity but significant unresolved issues for scalable construction [30]. Current experimental studies and numerical simulations are conducted under ideal conditions. However, when considering rainwater intrusion and damage, the stability of these heat absorption devices remains uncertain, especially in winter when they may be idle. Since these devices are typically used in hot, sunny regions with abundant microorganisms and insects, potential damage from these factors is possible. The impact of all these unknown variables on the equipment remains unclear.

5.2. Technical Performance

The technical performance of pavement energy-harvesting systems varies across technologies, presenting both achievements and challenges. For asphalt solar collectors, adding 4% steel fibers to asphalt mixtures enhances heat transfer to internal water storage under simulated solar radiation, reducing bulk density and improving thermophysical properties, though long-term field performance requires validation [90]. Single-pass ASC systems achieve 21.9% efficiency, raising water temperatures by 4.0–13.6 °C and reducing surface temperatures by 0.5–3.2 °C, extending pavement life by 3 years [48]. Thermoelectric generators with H-shaped cooling elements and a 100 × 200 mm top plate optimize heat transfer, achieving a 23 °C temperature gradient and a 1.02 V open-circuit voltage, charging a 5F supercapacitor in 3 h [80].
Photovoltaic road systems demonstrate feasibility, with sample data from 27 cities (e.g., Ali, Jiuquan, Linyi) showing sufficient energy to meet urban transport demands, though large cities need prioritized solar road construction [91]. Modified ASTM standards and non-standard testing improve performance evaluations, accelerating product development, yet unified quality standards are lacking [92]. Piezoelectric transducers achieve robust outputs, with onsite polarization at 1.2 kV/mm for a 30 min duration and elevated temperatures yielding a d33 value of 296 pC/N, a Cp increase of 69.4%, and a kp increase of 2.04 times; the maximum output voltage reaches 10.47 V at 10 Hz and 1 mm displacement (81.79% of lab-polarized samples) [93]. Hybrid piezo–TEG systems theoretically enhance efficiency, but their practical performance remains unproven beyond prototypes [87].

5.3. Economic and Environmental Impact

The economic feasibility and environmental impact of pavement energy-harvesting systems highlight both potential and limitations. Asphalt solar collectors offer a 5-year payback period with a positive net present value of USD 3000, driven by efficiencies of 21.9% (single-pass) versus 10.9% (closed-loop), making them cost-effective in areas with high solar radiation [48]. However, payback periods increase with latitude, limiting viability in less sunny regions [24]. Photovoltaic noise barriers achieve a 5.4-year energy payback time against a 20–30-year lifespan, producing 5000 kWh annually [52], but load-bearing photovoltaic pavements face long payback periods and low cost-effectiveness due to high installation costs [46]. Piezoelectric systems, with a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of USD 0.08–0.20/kWh, remain uncertain without large-scale validation. Hybrid systems integrating piezo and thermoelectric generators promise higher efficiency, but economic practicality awaits field proof [87].
Environmentally, these systems reduce urban heat island effects and emissions. ASCs lower surface temperatures by 0.5–3.2 °C and retain 30–40% of summer heat for winter use, enhancing ground-source heat pump efficiency and cutting fossil fuel reliance (Table 4) [48]. Photovoltaic–thermal systems achieve 37.31% efficiency, mitigating urban heat islands by reducing long-wave radiation [54], while photovoltaic–electric vehicle integration boosts self-use by 17%, decreasing emissions [12]. Harvested energy reduces salt and fuel use for de-icing and heating, lowering carbon footprints [84]. In developing countries with rapid infrastructure growth and solar abundance, economic and environmental benefits are pronounced, though slow adoption persists due to upfront costs and scalability challenges [94].
A recent comparative economic assessment by Mahajan et al. [95] highlighted substantial variability in the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) among pavement-based harvesting systems. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) had a relatively stable and moderate LCOE of approximately USD 2.31/kWh, whereas piezoelectric systems exhibited notably higher and variable costs, ranging from USD 35.66 to USD 106.97/kWh, restricting their economic feasibility to roadways with extremely high traffic volumes. Photovoltaic (PV) pavements showed an intermediate LCOE of about USD 0.45/kWh (1781 MWh/lane-mile annually), whereas asphalt solar collectors (ASCs) had a significantly higher LCOE of USD 4.21/kWh (588.634 kW/lane-mile annually). For context, conventional U.S. grid electricity costs approximately USD 0.15–0.30/kWh [96], and utility-scale solar or onshore wind installations have achieved prices as low as USD 0.03–0.075/kWh [97]. Thus, pavement-based energy-harvesting technologies offer considerable potential benefits—particularly in urban heat mitigation, environmental impact, and spatial efficiency—yet their economic competitiveness remains highly context-dependent, with significant gaps compared to mature renewables such as solar farms and wind power.
Table 4. Economic and environmental metrics comparison.
Table 4. Economic and environmental metrics comparison.
Technology TypePayback Period (Years)Net Present Value (USD)UHI Mitigation (°C)Emission Reduction Benefits
ASC [48]530000.5–3.2Reduced Fossil Fuel Use
PV [11]>5.4-6.4–1017% Self-Use Increase
VBH [98]4.6~9.3--Potential for Off-Grid Power
TEG [79]~12-5–10Reduced Cooling Demand

6. Future Research

6.1. Design Optimization

Improving the efficiency and durability of pavement energy harvesting systems relies heavily on careful design optimization [99]. Ghalandari [100] highlights that parameters such as the spacing between pipes, the fluid flow rate, and the inlet temperature play a dominant role in determining the thermal performance of solar collectors embedded in pavements. In contrast, factors like burial depth and pipe diameter have a comparatively smaller effect, offering guidance for design prioritization. Zhu et al. [17] recommend specific parameters for hydronic asphalt pavements (HAPs), suggesting a pipeline spacing of 100–120 mm and a burial depth of 140 mm to balance snow-melting efficiency and mechanical integrity, thereby addressing stress concentration around pipes. These values offer a concrete starting point for optimizing heat transfer and durability.
Structural improvements also warrant focus. Khamil et al. [80] demonstrate that a 100 × 200 mm top plate enhances heat transfer in thermoelectric generators, while an H-shaped cooling element increases the temperature gradient (up to 23 °C) compared to a single-rod design, improving energy output (e.g., 1.02 V open-circuit voltage and a 5F supercapacitor charged in 3 h) [80]. These findings suggest that refining component dimensions and cooling configurations can boost efficiency. Future designs should integrate such optimizations to maximize energy harvesting while maintaining pavement functionality, requiring field validation to confirm scalability and performance under real-world conditions.

6.2. Material Development

Advancing material properties is essential for improving the efficiency and functionality of pavement energy-harvesting systems. Ghalandari (2021) [101] found that in winter, the efficiency index of asphalt solar collectors decreases as asphalt thermal conductivity rises (e.g., from 1.531 to 2.309 W/m·K), suggesting that low-conductivity or insulating materials minimize heat loss and enhance thermal storage. This contrasts with summer applications where higher conductivity (e.g., 2.120 W/m·K with conductive particles and carbon fibers) improves heat transfer [102]. Future research should explore adaptive materials while balancing seasonal needs.
Functional material enhancements also show promise. Samadi et al. [not explicitly numbered in original refs but implied in context] report that increasing the Fe3O4 and MnO2 nanoparticle content boosts the β-phase content, enhancing the piezoelectric response [93] and electromagnetic wave absorption and suggesting multifunctional applications in energy harvesting [93]. Similarly, integrating 4% steel fibers into asphalt mixtures improves heat transfer under simulated solar radiation [90], while PCMs like polyethylene glycol graft copolymer (7.5–10% addition) increase crack resistance (+16.2% flexural tensile strain) and stability (+8.86%) [37]. These advancements indicate that tailoring material compositions—via nanoparticles, fibers, or PCMs—can optimize thermal and mechanical performance, requiring further exploration for scalability and durability in real-world conditions.

6.3. System Evaluation

A thorough and reliable evaluation approach is essential to drive progress in pavement energy-harvesting systems, necessitating effective modeling and detailed assessments. Ghalandari [101] proposed a streamlined simulation model capable of reliably estimating the long-term heat performance of pavement-integrated solar collectors. This model significantly lowers computational demands relative to finite-element methods, making it a practical option for scalable design verification [101]. Klimenta et al. [103,104] validated an FEM-based thermal model, confirming its precision for real-world scenarios, though it remains resource-intensive. These models highlight the need for accessible, accurate evaluation tools to assess system viability under diverse conditions.
Multi-factor analysis is equally critical. Studies emphasize evaluating impacts of traffic shading, albedo, and fluid flow rate on performance [100], noting pipeline spacing (100–120 mm), flow rate, and inlet temperature as dominant factors over burial depth (e.g., 140 mm) and diameter in PSCs [100]. Piezoelectric systems require onsite polarization assessments, achieving a d33 value of 296 pC/N and a 10.47 V output at 10 Hz and 1 mm displacement (81.79% of lab results) [93]. Future evaluations should integrate these factors—traffic, material properties, and operational parameters—into holistic models that are validated with larger samples under actual weather conditions, as current lab-based studies on small samples limit real-world applicability [100].

6.4. Application Expansion

Expanding the applications of pavement energy-harvesting systems requires adapting to diverse urban environments and integrating complementary technologies. Demartino et al. [105] suggest using harvested energy for pedestrian bridge monitoring, leveraging outputs like 50.41 mW from piezoelectric devices (0.7 MPa and 15 Hz) [59] to power sensors. Nasir et al. [106] highlight the urban road asphalt solar collectors in long, deep street canyons, reducing urban heat island effects by up to 10 °C via asphalt solar collectors and indicating potential for tailored urban deployments. Future research should optimize systems for varied settings—roads, bridges, and canyons—to enhance structural monitoring and microclimate benefits.
Integration with other systems offers further potential. Johnsson and Adl-Zarrabi [11] propose combining PSCs (efficiency up to 49% and a temperature reduction of 6.4–10 °C) with heat pumps, optimizing fluid flow and albedo to improve energy output (e.g., 245 kWh/m2 in summer). PV-EV integration increases self-use rates by 17%, reducing emissions [12,64], while hybrid piezo–TEG systems could power smart infrastructure with outputs that charge 5F supercapacitors in 3 h [80]. These synergies promise comprehensive energy utilization, necessitating field tests with larger samples under real weather conditions to validate scalability and expand practical applications beyond current lab-based limits [11].
In addition to the core technologies reviewed in this paper, several emerging energy-harvesting methods warrant further exploration. These include triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) [107,108], which utilize contact electrification to convert surface friction into electrical energy, and electromagnetic induction-based systems [109], which are being tested in some prototype pavements. While these technologies remain at an early research stage and face challenges related to durability, scalability, and energy density, they represent promising future directions as materials science and micro-energy systems continue to advance. Continued experimental development and real-world testing will be essential to determine their viability in transportation infrastructure.

7. Conclusions

This review highlights the potential of pavement energy-harvesting technologies to mitigate urban heat islands and generate sustainable energy, supporting smart city development. Technologies such as asphalt solar collectors, photovoltaics, vibration energy systems, and thermoelectric generators demonstrate significant benefits, including pavement cooling and urban power supply. Photovoltaic pavements achieve efficiencies up to 49%, while hybrid systems like photovoltaic–thermal collectors reach 37.31%, enhancing both energy output and UHI mitigation. However, high costs, integration challenges, and durability issues hinder large-scale adoption.
Although laboratory results are promising, real-world performance remains uncertain, especially under environmental stresses like rain and biological degradation. Future research must focus on scalable, cost-effective designs; material innovations; and practical field validations. Pavement energy harvesting holds particular promise for solar-rich developing regions and urban areas, where it can meet growing energy demands and improve infrastructure resilience. Overcoming economic and technical barriers is essential to realize its full potential for sustainable urban transformation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.C. and Y.Q.; methodology, C.H.; validation, L.W.; investigation, C.H.; resources, Y.Q.; data curation, S.C.; writing—original draft preparation, S.C.; writing—review and editing, Y.Q.; visualization, L.W.; supervision, Y.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Guangxi Major Science and Technology Project (Grant No: GUIKEAA23073005, awarded to Y.Q. by the Guangxi Science and Technology Department) and Guangxi Universities Young- and Mid-Career Faculty Basic Research Capacity Enhancement Project (Grant No. 2022KY0161, awarded to C.H. by the Guangxi Department of Education).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Shijing Chen was employed by the company Nanning Communications Investment Group Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Energies 18 03959 g001
Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of energy-harvesting mechanisms in pavement systems: (a) asphalt solar collectors, (b) photovoltaic pavement, (c) piezoelectric transducers, and (d) thermoelectric generators.
Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of energy-harvesting mechanisms in pavement systems: (a) asphalt solar collectors, (b) photovoltaic pavement, (c) piezoelectric transducers, and (d) thermoelectric generators.
Energies 18 03959 g001
Table 1. Summary of construction, energy transfer, and integration considerations for four core pavement energy-harvesting technologies.
Table 1. Summary of construction, energy transfer, and integration considerations for four core pavement energy-harvesting technologies.
TechnologyKey Structural Layers/ComponentsEnergy-Transfer mediumOperating RangeEfficiencyTypical Install Sites
ASCWearing course → conductive binder → serpentine Cu pipes → subbase30% glycol–waterFluid outlet 28–45 °C25–34% thermalSouth-facing carriageways, wide medians, parking lots, and bridge decks in sunny regions
PVTempered glass cover → encapsulated crystalline–Si cells → EVA → aluminum backplate → bedding mortar Direct electrical0.5 kW m−2 irradiance17–22% electricalLow-traffic lanes, sidewalks, cycleways, noise-barrier panels, and unshaded highways
VBHSurface slab → steel load-transfer plate → PZT stack modules → epoxy groutMechanical strain → charge0.1–0.4 MPa wheel loads1–5 mW cm−2Toll plazas, speed bumps, bus stops, and urban arterials with heavy traffic
TEGHot shoe (pavement surface) → Bi2Te3 couples → cold sink fins (ambient)Temperature gradientΔT = 15–35 °C1–3% electricalHot-climate pavements, tunnel entrances, solar parking lots, and airport taxiways
Table 2. Energy output and efficiency in different application scenarios.
Table 2. Energy output and efficiency in different application scenarios.
Application ScenarioTechnology TypeEnergy OutputEfficiency (%)Other Metrics
Direct ElectricityPiezoelectric [47]525 J/h (0.15 Wh)--
PV [11]245 kWh/m242–49-
TEG [20]0.3–5.0 W--
Thermal UsesSingle-pass ASC [48]4.0–13.6 °C Water Temp. Rise21.9Pavement Life Extension of 3 Years
PCM-integrated ASC [35]--Daytime Temp. Reduction of 8.7 °C
Table 3. Performance comparison of pavement energy harvesting technologies.
Table 3. Performance comparison of pavement energy harvesting technologies.
Technology TypeSub-TechnologyEfficiency (%)Energy OutputTemperature Reduction (°C)Other Key Metrics
Asphalt Solar Collector (ASC)Buried Water Pipes [13]30150–300 W/m3 0.5–3.2-
Buried Air Ducts---Airflow Rate 0.58 m/s
Porous Middle Layer75–95---
PCM Integration-150–200 kWh/m3 [36]8.7-
Photovoltaic System (PV)PV Pavements [11]42–49245 kWh/m26.4-
Vibration-Based HarvestingPiezoelectric Transducers [59]-50.41 mW-LCOE USD 0.08–0.20/kWh
Thermoelectric Generator (TEG)TEG [20]-0.3–5.0 W-Temperature Gradient 23 °C
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Chen, S.; Wei, L.; Huang, C.; Qin, Y. A Review on the Technologies and Efficiency of Harvesting Energy from Pavements. Energies 2025, 18, 3959. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153959

AMA Style

Chen S, Wei L, Huang C, Qin Y. A Review on the Technologies and Efficiency of Harvesting Energy from Pavements. Energies. 2025; 18(15):3959. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153959

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chen, Shijing, Luxi Wei, Chan Huang, and Yinghong Qin. 2025. "A Review on the Technologies and Efficiency of Harvesting Energy from Pavements" Energies 18, no. 15: 3959. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153959

APA Style

Chen, S., Wei, L., Huang, C., & Qin, Y. (2025). A Review on the Technologies and Efficiency of Harvesting Energy from Pavements. Energies, 18(15), 3959. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153959

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