Green Hydrogen in Jordan: Stakeholder Perspectives on Technological, Infrastructure, and Economic Barriers
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Background and Motivation
1.2. National Context: The Case of Jordan
1.3. Objectives of This Study
- RQ1: What are the primary technological limitations hindering green hydrogen production in Jordan, and how do they relate to renewable energy integration and electrolyser performance?
- RQ2: What infrastructure gaps currently exist in the country’s electricity grid, water supply systems, and hydrogen transport networks, constraining sectoral development?
- RQ3: What economic and policy challenges—including costs, incentives, and investment risks—must be addressed to improve the feasibility and scalability of green hydrogen projects in Jordan?
2. Literature Review
2.1. Technological Challenges
2.1.1. Renewable Energy Integration
2.1.2. Electrolysis Technology
2.1.3. Water Resource Management
2.2. Infrastructure Challenges
2.2.1. Electrolyser Facilities
2.2.2. Energy Grid Compatibility
2.2.3. Transportation Networks
2.3. Economic Challenges
2.3.1. Policy and Financing
2.3.2. Economic and Policy Barriers
- Regulatory Gaps and Institutional Capacity: The absence of established hydrogen safety standards, certification schemes, and export procedures reduces investor confidence and complicates project structuring [40].
- Insufficient Incentives and De-risking Tools: Unlike fossil-based energy, green hydrogen lacks consistent support mechanisms. This misalignment discourages investment in early-stage projects, as highlighted by stakeholders and earlier reports [20].
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Target Population and Sampling
3.2. Sample Size and Participant Distribution
3.3. Survey Instrument Design
- Demographic Information: This captured organisational affiliation, professional role, sector, years of experience, and field of expertise.
- Knowledge of Green Hydrogen: This assessed familiarity with green hydrogen concepts, applications, and relevance to Jordan’s energy future.
- Technological Challenges: These investigated perceptions of technical barriers such as renewable integration, electrolyser efficiency, and water resource limitations.
- Infrastructure Challenges: These evaluated views on grid readiness, transport logistics, and facility availability.
- Economic Challenges: These explored issues related to cost competitiveness, market maturity, and financing mechanisms.
- Solutions and Recommendations: These collected expert judgments on strategic enablers and policy interventions.
- Additional Comments: These provided an open-ended section for supplementary observations and insights.
3.4. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Stakeholder Demographics
4.2. Knowledge of Green Hydrogen
4.3. Applications of Green Hydrogen
- Industrial processes—71.2%;
- Power generation—63.2%;
- Energy storage—59.6%;
- Transportation—57.7%.
4.4. Technological Challenges
4.4.1. Renewable Energy Integration
- High costs—69.2%;
- Technology gaps—50.0%;
- Intermittent supply—46.2%.
4.4.2. Electrolysis Technology
- Distribution infrastructure was identified as the highest-impact barrier (51.9%);
- Hydrogen storage followed closely as the next most significant barrier (48.1%);
- Renewable energy availability was rated as Very High by 23.1% of respondents, while electrolyser efficiency received a Very High rating from 11.5%.
4.4.3. Water Resource Management
- Seawater desalination—76.9%;
- Wastewater reuse—46.2%;
- Brackish water—32.7%.
4.5. Infrastructure Challenges
4.5.1. Grid Compatibility
- Insufficient investment—40%;
- Needed grid upgrades—36%;
- Technology limitations—22%.
- Smart-grid deployment—41%;
- Physical grid modernisation—28%;
- Enhanced regulatory support—28%.
4.5.2. Transport-Network Development
- High costs—82.7%;
- Infrastructure deficits—71.2%;
- Safety concerns—61.5%.
- Broad infrastructure investment—84.6%;
- Storage facility build-out—71.2%;
- Advances in storage technology—57.7%.
4.6. Economic Challenges
4.6.1. Production Costs
- Expensive technology;
- High energy costs;
- Scarcity of resources (primarily water).
4.6.2. Market Demand
- Industry;
- Power generation;
- Transportation.
4.6.3. Investment Climate and Financing
- Regulatory uncertainty—69.2%;
- Financing accessibility—63.4%;
- Perceived risk—59.6%.
- Cost-reduction measures (cited by 35%) paired with targeted incentives (34%);
- Regulatory alignment and risk mitigation (37%);
- Coordinated infrastructure and financing strategies, frequently anchored in PPP models.
4.7. Summary of Key Findings
5. Discussion
5.1. Technology and Infrastructure Alignment
5.2. Economic and Policy Perspectives
5.3. Integrated Strategy and Outlook
- Technology–Infrastructure Nexus: Prioritizing investment in renewable energy integration, electrolyser deployment, grid modernization, and seawater desalination.
- Economic–Policy Ecosystem: Implementing targeted financial instruments and regulatory reforms to enhance bankability and reduce perceived investment risks.
- Knowledge–Capacity Foundation: Strengthening technical expertise, institutional preparedness, and inclusive stakeholder participation.
5.4. Comparative Analysis with Existing Studies
5.5. Comparative Analysis with MENA Peers
6. Conclusions
6.1. Synthesis of Findings
6.2. Future Research Directions and Pilot Integration
- Desalination–Electrolysis Integration: Assess co-located seawater desalination and hydrogen production in Aqaba, focusing on system efficiency, LCOH, and brine management.
- Floating PV Electrolysis: Test small-scale floating PV–electrolyser systems to evaluate water savings, PV cooling effects, and suitability in arid regions.
- Localised End-Use Pilots: Conduct feasibility studies for small-scale H2 end-uses such as fuel-cell bus fleets or port logistics operations.
- Monitoring of Flagship Projects: Evaluate real-world outcomes from pilot initiatives like the Jordan Green Ammonia project and track lessons learned on integration, permitting, and infrastructure.
- Infrastructure and Regulatory Models: Explore centralised infrastructure concepts and regulatory enablers (e.g., shared pipelines, electricity pricing) to guide scalable hydrogen clusters.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
PEM | Proton Exchange Membrane |
AEL | Alkaline Electrolyser |
AEM | Anion Exchange Membrane |
LCOH | Levelised Cost of Hydrogen |
PPP | public–private partnership |
R&D | research and development |
GW | Gigawatt |
kWh | Kilowatt-hour |
H2 | hydrogen |
ANOVA | Analysis of Variance |
CAPEX | capital expenditure |
OPEX | operational expenditure |
EU | European Union |
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Barrier Category | Specific Barriers | Key Insights |
---|---|---|
Technological | Electrolysis efficiency limitations | Current electrolyser technologies exhibit suboptimal efficiency, increasing overall production costs. |
Limited availability of advanced renewable energy | Renewable capacity is insufficient to sustain large-scale hydrogen production. | |
Compatibility issues with existing energy grids | Grid infrastructure requires upgrades to effectively integrate hydrogen systems. | |
Water resource security | Water-intensive processes pose a major constraint in water-scarce countries like Jordan. | |
Infrastructure | Lack of smart grid and hydrogen transport networks | Absence of hydrogen-ready infrastructure limits distribution and commercial deployment. |
Insufficient water desalination and treatment systems | Desalination is essential but adds energy costs, reducing overall system efficiency. | |
Economic | High production costs (LCOH) | Green hydrogen remains more expensive than fossil-based alternatives without subsidies. |
Limited investment and financing mechanisms | Lack of de-risking tools and financial incentives constrains private sector involvement. | |
Policy and Regulatory | Absence of a clear regulatory framework | Undefined hydrogen laws and standards delay project implementation. |
Insufficient policy incentives and subsidies | Targeted financial support and national programs are needed to catalyze market growth. |
Category | Key Barriers | Stakeholder Insights/Suggested Interventions |
---|---|---|
Technological | Low electrolyser deployment; limited R&D; compatibility with intermittent renewables | Favour PEM for solar-rich grid; call for public R&D support and international tech transfer |
Infrastructure | Weak grid integration; no H2 storage or pipelines; transport bottlenecks | Prioritise smart grid upgrades; coordinate hydrogen hubs with desalination and logistics |
Economic | High LCOH; limited subsidies; lack of carbon pricing | Support PPPs; design incentive mechanisms; integrate hydrogen into national energy strategy |
Technology | CAPEX | OPEX | Efficiency (HHV) | Scalability and Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alkaline (AEL) | 500–900 USD/kW | Low (mature tech) | 60–70% | Widely deployed; slow ramp-up; best for steady loads |
PEM | 1000–1800 USD/kW | Medium to High | 65–75% | Fast response; suited for intermittent renewables; higher cost |
AEM (emerging) | 700–1200 USD/kW (estimated) | Medium | 65–70% (lab-scale) | Promising hybrid; limited commercial data; under development |
Country | Technological Challenges | Infrastructure Challenges | Economic Challenges | Proposed Solutions |
---|---|---|---|---|
Jordan | Limited electrolyser deployment; low R&D capacity | Grid not hydrogen-ready; no pipelines or storage | LCOH 3.13–4.42 USD/kg; weak incentives | Boost R&D; grid upgrades; clear PPP rules |
Morocco | Limited local tech expertise; desalination constraints | Ports/pipelines under retrofit | Export competition; financing gaps | EU export ties; capacity building; long-term deals |
Egypt | Tech localisation; foreign equipment dependence | Grid/logistics upgrades in hydrogen zones | High CAPEX; evolving policy | FDI; regulatory streamlining; PPPs |
Oman | Imported tech adaptation; water–energy integration | Ports/gas infra adapted gradually | Price uncertainty; demand volatility | Duqm hub; bilateral deals; Asian markets |
Saudi Arabia | Scaling systems to industrial level; water access | NEOM ports/pipelines developing | High investment needs; global exposure | Megaproject backing; policy support; global capital |
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Khasawneh, H.J.; Maaitah, R.A.; AlShdaifat, A. Green Hydrogen in Jordan: Stakeholder Perspectives on Technological, Infrastructure, and Economic Barriers. Energies 2025, 18, 3929. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153929
Khasawneh HJ, Maaitah RA, AlShdaifat A. Green Hydrogen in Jordan: Stakeholder Perspectives on Technological, Infrastructure, and Economic Barriers. Energies. 2025; 18(15):3929. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153929
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhasawneh, Hussam J., Rawan A. Maaitah, and Ahmad AlShdaifat. 2025. "Green Hydrogen in Jordan: Stakeholder Perspectives on Technological, Infrastructure, and Economic Barriers" Energies 18, no. 15: 3929. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153929
APA StyleKhasawneh, H. J., Maaitah, R. A., & AlShdaifat, A. (2025). Green Hydrogen in Jordan: Stakeholder Perspectives on Technological, Infrastructure, and Economic Barriers. Energies, 18(15), 3929. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153929