The Concept of an Infrastructure Location to Supply Buses with Hydrogen: A Case Study of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Characteristics of West Pomeranian Voivodship in Poland
3.2. Methodology Used to Conduct the Research
- 1.
- Solaris Urbino 18 hydrogen FCEVs produced in Poland will be operated (Table 4). Green hydrogen will be used for fuelling operations.
- 2.
- The stations will be located in the two biggest cities of West Pomeranian Voivodeship: Szczecin and Koszalin. These cities were chosen considering their size (over 100,000 inhabitants) and importance in the voivodeship. Szczecin is the capital and the largest city in the voivodeship. Koszalin takes second place in terms of the number of inhabitants in the analysed voivodeship [74,75].
- 3.
- The stations could be located near areas with heavy traffic. It was assumed that they would be used by hydrogen-powered buses and passenger cars.
- 4.
- 5.
- The number of hydrogen refuelling stations will be calculated for 2025 and 2040.
- 6.
- The location of stationary stations for fuelling vehicles with hydrogen will be proposed. Each station should include the following elements: dispenser, compressor, and stationary tanks. One station may include several dispensers.
- —registered buses in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, pcs.,
- —registered buses in Poland, pcs.
- Lstv—number of hydrogen refuelling stations per voivodeship, pcs.,
- Lsp—number of stations planned for analysed time period, pcs.
- Pbrc—percentage share of buses registered in a particular city against the number of buses registered in the analysed cities, pcs.
- —number of buses planned for Szczecin and Koszalin (per phase: 2025, 2030, 2040), pcs.,
- —estimated average daily mileage per bus (can be based, e.g., on data from public transport operators), km,
- —average hydrogen consumption rate for typical hydrogen buses, kg H2/100 km.
- —required dispensing rate, kg/hour,
- —total daily demand for hydrogen, kg (),
- —available refuelling window, hours.
- —target utilization rate, %.
- —required corrected dispensing rate, kg/hour,
- —refuelling rate per one dispenser, kg/hour.
4. Results
4.1. Calculation of the Number of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations for the West Pomeranian Voivodeship
- For 2025:
- For 2040:
4.2. The Concept of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations Location in Szczecin
- —percentage share of the population of a selected district of Szczecin in relation to population of the entire city, %,
- —number of planned stations in the city, pcs.
4.3. The Concept of Hydrogen Refuelling Station Location in Koszalin
4.4. Calculation of Hydrogen Amount Needed for Buses Operation
- 1.
- The number of hydrogen-powered buses () planned for 2025, 2030, 2040 is as follows:
- Szczecin city:
- -
- 2025: 10 buses,
- -
- 2030: 20 buses,
- -
- 2040: 30 buses,
- Koszalin city:
- -
- 2025: 5 buses,
- -
- 2030: 10 buses,
- -
- 2040: 15 buses.
- 2.
- Estimated average daily mileage per bus (): 200 km/day.
- 3.
- Average hydrogen consumption rate for a typical hydrogen- powered bus (): 8 kg H2/100 km.
- 1.
- The estimated daily hydrogen demand () for 2040 is used.
- 2.
- Typical refuelling time per bus refuelling: 15 min.
- 3.
- Available refuelling window (): 10 h (600 min) of refuelling time.
- 4.
- Target utilization rate for dispensers: 70% utilization rate for dispensers.
- 5.
- Refuelling rate per one dispenser (): 30 kg/hour.
- 6.
- Hydrogen should be stored within the station to cover 1–3 days demand.
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
- Prioritize strategic locations—ensure that hydrogen refuelling stations are located near major public transport routes to maximize accessibility and usage by public transport vehicles. When choosing a dispenser, special attention should be paid to the pressure at which the vehicle is powered with hydrogen. The safety of hydrogen fuelling is extremely important and should be ensured so that the operation of hydrogen stations and the subsequent operation of vehicles takes place in a way that does not threaten the life of society.
- Pay dedicated attention to public awareness campaigns—implement educational programs to inform the public about the benefits and use of hydrogen-powered vehicles and refuelling stations, fostering acceptance and encouraging utilization.
- Conduct regular assessment—continuously monitor and evaluate the operational statistics of hydrogen-powered buses and adjust the placement and number of refuelling stations accordingly to meet changing demand and urban mobility patterns.
- It is important to engage local government, transportation authorities, and private stakeholders in the planning and development phases to create a cohesive strategy that aligns with the national hydrogen strategy and regional goals.
- Elaborate plan for future expansion—design the initial stations with future scalability in mind, allowing for easy expansion to accommodate anticipated increases in hydrogen demand and the growth of hydrogen-powered vehicles.
- Address economic and legal challenges—identify potential financial, regulatory, and legal barriers to the establishment of hydrogen refuelling infrastructure and work proactively to address these issues through policy advocacy and partnerships.
- Implement pilot projects—consider initiating pilot projects in the city to test the feasibility and operational effectiveness of hydrogen refuelling stations before broader implementation.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Users Type | Selected Station Location Preferences |
---|---|
Bus operators | Costs, bus lines congestion, accessibility, strategic location, energy storage systems, infrastructure compatibility, station power and charge efficiency, safety of performed operations, etc. |
Individual/residential users | Prices, location, accessibility, convenience, and charging point information and payment system, charging station level of service, charging power, comfort and amenities, etc. |
Type of Vehicle | Advantages | Infrastructure Implication |
---|---|---|
FCEVs | Fast refuelling: FCEVs can be refuelled with high-pressure hydrogen gas in several minutes | Hydrogen refuelling stations can potentially service many vehicles per dispenser per day |
More extended range: FCEVs typically offer ranges of 300–400 km and more | Fewer stations are needed overall to provide coverage, especially on long-distance corridors, compared to shorter-range BEVs | |
Lower weight sensitivity: hydrogen tanks weigh significantly less than the massive batteries required to give heavy-duty trucks or buses | Infrastructure planning can focus strategically on freight corridors, ports, and distribution hubs, where the value proposition is strongest | |
Reduced network load at the dispensing point: FCEV does not draw massive instantaneous power from the grid like multiple DC fast chargers operating simultaneously | Planning of station locations focus on the hydrogen supply chain (production, transport, storage) rather than solely on high-power grid upgrades at every station location | |
Scalable station capacity | Adding more storage and dispensers can potentially scale the vehicle throughput of a hydrogen station more easily than adding multiple Megawatt-level chargers | |
BEVs | Use of the existing electrical grid, which already exists | Upgraded or existing grid capacity may be used for installing charging stations, not building an entirely new fuel production, transportation, and distribution network |
Different charging options: BEVs can be charged at home overnight, at various public locations or at other places | Infrastructure planning can include incentives and standards for home/work charging (slow or fast), distributing the load and cost | |
Energy-efficient charging: using electricity directly from the grid to charge a battery is generally more energy-efficient than using electricity to produce hydrogen | The infrastructure must support a lower total energy demand for the same number of kilometres travelled | |
Lower station complexity and cost: slower/fast chargers may be installed in different locations | Chargers are generally less complex and expensive per unit than high-pressure hydrogen refuelling stations currently | |
Market adoption: BEVs have a significant head start in market adoption | There is an established demand to justify investment |
Parameter | Description | Value Range |
---|---|---|
Hydrogen storage capacity | Amount of hydrogen stored in onboard tanks | 37.5 kg (5 rooftop tanks, Type IV) |
Range | Maximum driving distance on a full hydrogen tank | Up to 350 km (Solaris Urbino 12) ~300 km (NesoBus) |
Refuelling Time | Time required to refuel the hydrogen tanks to full | Approximately 8–15 min |
Efficiency | The efficiency of converting hydrogen energy into electricity | Around 45–60% |
Electric Motor Power | Power output of the electric traction motor | 160–180 kW |
Battery Capacity | Capacity of the onboard battery used for boosting and regenerative braking | 30–60 kWh (Li-ion battery) |
Top Speed | Maximum achievable speed | Around 85 km/h |
Acceleration | Time to reach operational speed (e.g., 0–50 km/h) | ~20 s |
Parameter | Solaris Urbino 12 Hydrogen | Solaris Urbino 18 Hydrogen | Nesobus |
---|---|---|---|
Drive axle | Electric axle with two integrated motors 2 × 125 kW | Portal axle Central engine standard | Model AVE 130 AxTrax |
Hydrogen fuel cell, kW | 70 | 100 | 70 |
Hydrogen tank type | Type 4, composite tanks | Composite tanks | Type 4, composite tanks |
Hydrogen tank capacity, l | 1560 (5 × 312) | 5 × 312, 3 × 190 | 5 × 312 |
Batteries, kWh | Solaris High Power, 29.2 | Solaris batteries, about 60 | Type LTO, 2 × 15.2 |
City with Powiat Status | Area, km2 | Population (30 June 2024), Thousand Persons | Population Density, Persons/km2 |
---|---|---|---|
Szczecin | 300.55 | 387.7 | 1290 |
Koszalin | 98.34 | 105.1 | 1069 |
City with Powiat Status | Percentage Share of Buses Registered, % | Calculated Number of Stations, pcs. | |
---|---|---|---|
2025 | 2040 | ||
Szczecin | 79.8 | 1 | 6 |
Koszalin | 20.2 | 1 | 1 |
Sum | 100 | 2 | 7 |
District | Number of Settlements, pcs. | Population of Each District (31 December 2023), Persons | Percentage Share of Population of Each District, % | Calculated Number of Stations, pcs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Śródmieście | 10 | 105,800 | 30 | 2 |
Północ | 7 | 637 | 16 | 1 |
Zachód | 9 | 112,602 | 32 | 2 |
Prawobrzeże | 11 | 76,860 | 22 | 1 |
No. | Station Location | Order of Station Implementation | Comment | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Street/Avenue | District | |||
1 | Adama Mickiewicza Str. | Śródmieście | 1 | The station may be located near a section of the public transport network, which includes lines such as 60, 67, 86. |
2 | Wojska Polskiego Ave. | Zachód | 2 | The station may be located near a section of the public transport network, which includes lines such as 53, 60. |
3 | 1 Maja Str. | Śródmieście | 3 | The station may be located near a section of the public transport network, which includes lines such as 53, 58, 60, 63. |
4 | Profesora Ludwika Janiszewskiego Str. | Zachód | 4 | The station may be located near a section of the public transport network, which includes lines such as 53, 61. |
5 | Goleniowska Str. | Prawobrzeże | 5 | The station may be located near a section of the public transport network, which includes lines such as 64, 96, C. |
6 | Bogumińska Str. | Północ | 6 | The station may be located near a section of the public transport network, which includes lines such as 101, 107, 63. |
City with Powiat Status | 2025 | 2030 | 2040 |
---|---|---|---|
Szczecin | 160 | 320 | 480 |
Koszalin | 80 | 160 | 240 |
City with Powiat Status | Daily Demand, kg/day | Dispensing Rate Required, kg/hour | Number of Dispensers, pcs. | Days of Storage, Number of Days | Hydrogen Storage Capacity, kg |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Szczecin | 480 | 69 | 3 | 1 | 480 |
2 | 960 | ||||
3 | 1440 | ||||
Koszalin | 240 | 34 | 2 | 1 | 240 |
2 | 480 | ||||
3 | 720 |
Selected Cities and Towns | Area, km2 | Population (30 June 2024), Thousand Persons | Registered Buses (2023), pcs. | Proposed Number of Stations, pcs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Szczecin | 300.55 | 387.7 | 1.718 | 3 |
Koszalin | 98.34 | 105.1 | 1.443 | 1 |
Stargard | 48.08 | 66.272 | 528 | 1 |
Kołobrzeg | 25.67 | 43.364 | 26 | 1 |
Świnoujście | 197.20 | 38.728 | 138 | 1 |
City | Location Description | Location Visualization |
---|---|---|
Świnoujście | Barlickiego Street. Near the port and ferry crossing. Proximity to the main public transport hub, with convenient connections to the main route towards Szczecin. | |
Kołobrzeg | Trzebiatowska Street. Near the MZK bus depot and the ring road. The direct vicinity of the bus depot—optimal for logistics and refuelling. Regional road DW102 is close, and the S6 expressway is easily accessible. | |
Stargard | Broniewskiego Street. In the immediate vicinity of the MPK Stargard bus depot, adjacent to national road DK10 and near DK20. |
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Filina-Dawidowicz, L.; Miłek, D.; Baziukė, D. The Concept of an Infrastructure Location to Supply Buses with Hydrogen: A Case Study of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. Energies 2025, 18, 3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123026
Filina-Dawidowicz L, Miłek D, Baziukė D. The Concept of an Infrastructure Location to Supply Buses with Hydrogen: A Case Study of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. Energies. 2025; 18(12):3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123026
Chicago/Turabian StyleFilina-Dawidowicz, Ludmiła, Dawid Miłek, and Dalia Baziukė. 2025. "The Concept of an Infrastructure Location to Supply Buses with Hydrogen: A Case Study of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland" Energies 18, no. 12: 3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123026
APA StyleFilina-Dawidowicz, L., Miłek, D., & Baziukė, D. (2025). The Concept of an Infrastructure Location to Supply Buses with Hydrogen: A Case Study of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. Energies, 18(12), 3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123026