A Survey on Multi-Active Bridge DC-DC Converters: Power Flow Decoupling Techniques, Applications, and Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Principles of the MAB Converter
2.1. Topology of the MAB Converter
2.2. Equivalent Circuit Model of MAB Converter
- MWHFT is replaced by one of the extended T, Pi, or cantilever ECMs.
- Each H-bridge replaced by an AC voltage source ().
- Magnetizing inductance can be eliminated since it is much greater than the leakage inductance, and by referring parameters to the primary side, ideal transformers can be neglected, so a Star-type (Y-type) ECM will be achieved.
- In order to directly link voltage sources to each other, a star to delta ) transformation should be applied to achieve -type ECM.
2.3. Power Flow Analysis
2.3.1. Introduction to Modulation Techniques
- If the DC voltages are not equal (e.g.,: ), using SPS modulation leads to unequal RMS value of the square AC voltages, which leads to reactive power, and more conduction losses. GPS modulation can modify and equalize the RMS values of the generated AC voltages and reduce or fully eliminate the reactive power. As a result, conduction losses are decreased [79,120,122,160].
- Reduces peak value of the inductor current and provides lower current stress in components [53].
- Under conventional SPS modulation, a DC offset appears in the AC current during transients (which decays slowly due to transformer resistance) and increases the settling time during transients. Advanced modulation techniques are capable of eliminating the inductor current DC offset in one switching cycle [43].
- Advanced modulation strategies have more control freedom and can provide a more satisfactory transient response in comparison with conventional SPS modulation.
- Using a small inner phase shift in GPS modulation can reduce high-frequency oscillations of the AC voltages and currents during the switching transient, and reduce the EMI [136].
- In comparison with SPS modulation, GPS can increase the power flow capability between two ports by almost [157].
2.3.2. Modelling Approaches to Derive Power Flow Relationships
3. Dynamics and Small Signal Modelling
Cross-Coupling Behavior
4. Control-Level Decoupling
4.1. Conventional Feedforward Decoupling Approaches
- Ideal decoupling can lead to complex expressions for the decoupling terms and is difficult to realize [169].
- The conventional decoupling has a centralized control structure, which means the number and complexity of the decoupling terms will increase with the number of ports, especially in applications with multi-directional power flow requirements.
- Effective performance of the feedforward linear control-based decoupling methods, requires a precise dynamic model of the converter [169].
- The control-to-output behaviour of the MAB converter with large phase shift values is highly non-linear. In general, linear control-based feedforward decouplers are not capable of dealing with significant non-linearity, and hence their desired performance is limited to the specific operating points in linear regions, and, the maximum power rating is restricted [170].
- Taking the RHP zero caused by the inductor dynamics into account, can make the decoupling design complicated [15].
- It can reduce the overall dynamic performance of the MAB converter [101].
4.2. Other Linear Control Approaches for Decoupling
4.3. Nonlinear Control Approaches
5. Hardware-Level Decoupling
5.1. Modified Inductance Type MAB
5.2. Separate Multiple Transformers
- Two winding transformers are much easier to design, manufacture, and optimize [183]. Moreover, desired leakage inductances are easier to achieve.
- Since two windings can be wound on different arms of the magnetic core, two-winding transformers can provide better galvanic isolation for high-voltage applications, especially when the voltage difference between two connected ports is considerable.
- The magnetic coupling between two transformers is neglected, hence, the cross-coupling effect can be reduced or fully eliminated (depending on the connection of the transformers).
- In a multi-winding transformer-based MAB converter with two inputs, a small deviation or disturbance in their voltages or the phase shift between them can cause circulating power and higher conduction losses, while an implementation with multiple two-winding transformers can overcome this problem.
- In the conventional MAB converter, with unequal phase shifts at the input ports, two voltages oppose each other (for part of the period), and this leads to a reduction in the slope of the sum of the produced magnetic flux. As a consequence of the lower rate of change in magnetic flux, the back electromagnetic force (EMF) will be reduced which causes high inrush currents from input ports. In the worst-case scenario when , a magnetic short circuit occurs [109]. Using two-winding transformers can address the magnetic short-circuit drawback of conventional MAB converters.
- In [41], it was suggested that an MWHFT in a MAB converter can have problems with saturation which are exacerbated as the number of ports (windings) increases - although the mechanism for this effect was not fully explained or discussed.
- Two-winding transformers can provide better heat dissipation than multi-winding transformers [184].
- Using two-winding transformers, the scalability of the converter is greater, since the implementation of a multi-winding transformer does not do not allow retrospective addition of another port (isolated active bridge) [104].
5.3. Resonant-Type Decoupling Approaches
6. Discussion, Outlook, and Conclusions
- Steady-state modelling: More control variables are offered by the MAB converter, which complicates the time-domain analysis. FCA, which approximates the waveforms and considers only the fundamental component in the frequency domain, greatly simplifies the analysis but reduces its precision. Using GHA and taking into account higher odd-order components of the waveforms can compensate for the lack of precision without sacrificing simplicity.
- Optimisation: Many researchers aimed to reduce both switching losses and conduction losses to flatten the efficiency curve for the entire operating range. Advanced modulation such as GPS can reduce the switching losses by expanding ZVS criteria and reducing the conduction losses by eliminating the reactive power. Others employed wide band-gap power semiconductors such as SiC-MOSFETs or used resonant circuits to reduce the conduction losses.
- Transformer design and modelling: The leakage inductance plays a key role in the operation of the MAB converter. However, designing the MWHFT is more complicated than conventional two-winding HFTs. In addition, deriving a simple and accurate ECM with measurable parameters is another challenge with MWHFTs.
- Reliability and fault tolerance: Fault detection and ride-through become increasingly important in MAB converters, as a fault in one port can impact the operation of the other ports. Several research papers sought to analyze the fault ride-through in MAB converters by bypassing the faulty port or attempting to remove DC current bias using advanced modulation techniques.
- Application-oriented research: Many authors focused on specific applications, then adapted or modified the fundamental topology of the MAB converter or integrated it with other types of converters, such as DC/AC inverters, to satisfy the requirements of the applications considered.
- Power flow decoupling control: Since cross-regulation in the MAB converter is the most unique challenge that complicates the control structure, and it does not exist in the DAB converter, it is the most extensively researched topic among other related MAB converter research gaps.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
MAB | Multi-Active Bridge |
DAB | Dual Active Bridge |
MMAB | Modular Multi-Active Bridge |
TAB | Triple Active Bridge |
QAB | Quadruple Active Bridge |
PS | Phase Shift |
SPS | Single Phase Shift |
GPS | General Phase Shift |
EPS | Extended Phase Shift |
DPS | Dual Phase Shift |
TPS | Triple Phase Shift |
ADRC | Active Disturbance Rejection Control |
MPC | Model Predictive Control |
SMC | Sliding Mode Control |
STA | Super-Twisting Algorithm |
ESO | Extended State Observer |
TDA | Time Domain Analysis |
FDA | Frequency-Domain Analysis |
FCA | Fundamental Component Analysis |
GHA | General Harmonics Analysis |
RCC | Ripple Correlation Control |
FFT | Fast Fourier Transformation |
NN | Neural Network |
RES | Renewable Energy System |
EV | Electric Vehicle |
ESS | Energy Storage System |
HESS | Hybrid Energy Storage System |
FC | Fuel Cell |
SC | Super Capacitor |
UPQC | Unified Power Quality Conditioner |
MEA | More Electric Aircraft |
SST | Solid State Transformer |
DFIG | Doubly Fed Induction Generator |
UPS | Uninterruptible Power Supply |
MIMO | Multi-Input Multi-Output |
FHS | First Harmonic Synchronized |
ZVS | Zero Voltage Switching |
HFT | High Frequency Transformer |
MWHFT | Multi-Winding High-Frequency Transformer |
RHP | Right Half Plane |
PI | Proportional Integral |
PD | Proportional Differential |
PIR | Proportional Integral Resonant |
PR | Proportional Resonant |
EMF | Electromagnetic Force |
ECM | Equivalent Circuit Model |
MMC | Modular Multilevel Converters |
LUT | Look-Up Table |
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Approach | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|
TDA | The most accurate method. Provides the most information and insight about steady-state operation. | The high computational effort with increasing numbers of freedom in power flow control. | [15,22,35,43,60,78,84,86,110] [13,14,21,24,34,52,68,94,161] [83,89,162] |
FCA | Easy to implement. Low computational cost. The best approach for resonant-type MAB converters. | Low accuracy (especially for higher value of the inner phase shifts). | [76,85,100,111,163,164] [3,65,112,113] |
GHA | The most convenient method, with sufficient accuracy. | Relatievly high computation effort to achieve higher accuracy. | [79,114,115,116,117,124,160] [63,72,96,165,166] |
Model-free (black-box) | Easy to implement. Robust to uncetenities. | Is not a general method. Does not demonstrates the inner operation principles of the converter | [91,99,118] |
Ref. | N | App | M | Model | Control Approach | Decoupling Performance | Complexity | P [kW] | V [v] | f [kHz] | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[58] | 4 | DFIG | SPS | TDA | Multi-loop (PIR voltage control) | Moderate | High | 1 | 200, 500, 500, 500 | 20 | 2022 |
[59] | 3 | UPQC | SPS | TDA | PI Voltage control | Low | Low | 1.5 | 48, 48, 48 | 10 | 2022 |
[94] | 4 | MV grid integration | SPS | TDA | Multi-loop controllers | High | High | 1 | 100, 150, 150, 150 | 20 | 2022 |
[68] | 3 | PV modules | SPS | TDA | PI voltage controller + MPPT algorithm | Low | Low | 0.1 | 50, 50, 12 | 250 | 2021 |
[14] | 3 | HESS | SPS + Duty Cycle | TDA | PI voltage controller | Low | Low | 1 | 54, 400, 42 | 20 | 2008 |
[89] | 4 | Offshore power transfer through HVDC | SPS | TDA | Multi-loop PI controller | Moderate | Moderate | 5 | 300, 100, 1500 | 10 | 2023 |
[93] | 12 | Energy router | Time-sharing +SPS | TDA | Time-sharing + PI voltage controller | High | Low | 0.5 | 72∼90 | 200 | 2020 |
[83] | 4 | LVDC in smart homes | Time-sharing +SPS | TDA | Time-sharing + PI voltage controller | High | Low | 0.4 | 400, 48, 15, 5 | 100 | 2019 |
[162] | 3 | HESS | SPS | TDA | Feedforward + Multi-loop PI controllers | Moderate | Moderate | 6 | 18, 18, 430 | 20 | 2007 |
[63] | 3 | EV charging station | GPS | GHA | Feedforward + PI voltage controller | Low | Moderate | 0.3 | 80, 80, 12 | 100 | 2022 |
[172] | 3 | Railway traction system | GPS | TDA | Feedforward + Multi-loop PI controllers | Moderate | Moderate | 20 | 300, 300, 300 | 10 | 2020 |
[20] | 4 | MEA | SPS | . | Feedforward + PI voltage controller | Low | Moderate | 1 | 50, 50 50, 50 | 10 | 2020 |
[165] | 3 | On-board Charger | SPS | GHA | Feedforward + PI power controller | Low | Moderate | 1 | 400, 400, 60 | 100 | 2021 |
[27] | 3 | Bipolar DC grid | SPS | . | Feedforward + Multi-loop PI controllers | Moderate | Moderate | 0.03 | 12,12, 11.6 | . | 2022 |
[34] | 3 | Isolated DC microgrid | SPS | FCA | Feedforward with gain schedualing + PI voltage controller | Moderate | High | 2 | 380, 380, 380 | 50 | 2023 |
[7] | 3 | HESS | GPS | GHA | Feedforward + Multi-loop PI controllers | Moderate | Moderate | 1 | 55, 48, 100 | 25 | 2021 |
[164] | 3 | . | SPS + dutycycle | FCA | Feedforward + Multi-loop PI controllers (in dq frame) | Moderate | High | . | . | . | 2022 |
[174] | 3 | EV charging station | SPS | TDA | Feedforward with gain scheduling + PI voltage controller | Moderate | High | 3 | 400, 200, 140 | 20 | 2022 |
[38] | 3 | DC transformer | SPS | TDA | Feedforward + PI voltage controller | Low | Moderate | . | . | . | 2021 |
[111] | 3 | . | SPS | FCA | Feedforward + PI power controller | Low | Moderate | 1 | 100, 75, 75 | 20 | 2018 |
[76] | 3 | UPS | SPS + duty cycle | FCA | Feedforward with gain scheduling + multi-loop PI controllers | Moderate | High | 1.5 | 300, 42, 14 | 100 | 2008 |
[15] | 3 | HESS | SPS + duty cycle | TDA | Multi-loop controllers with different bandwidths | Moderate | Moderate | 2.5 | 300, 12, 16 | 20 | 2012 |
[17] | 4 | HESS in MEA | SPS | TDA | Feedforward + multi-loop PI controllers with different bandwidth | Moderate | High | 3 | 270, 270, 270, 270 | 20 | 2018 |
[52] | 4 | Solid-state Transformer | SPS + duty cycle | TDA | Multi-loop phase shift + duty cycle control | Moderate | Moderate | 20 | 200∼400 | 100 | 2019 |
[171] | 3 | DC microgrid | SPS | FCA | Feedforward with gain scheduling + PI voltage controller | Moderate | High | 2 | 380, 380, 200 | 50 | 2022 |
[95] | 3 | HESS | SPS | TDA | Multi-loop controllers with different bandwidths | Moderate | Moderate | 0.6 | 60, 60, 13 | 20 | 2015 |
[175] | 3 | DC microgrid | SPS | TDA | Feedforward + PI voltage controller | Low | Moderate | 10 | 400, 400, 48 | 20 | 2019 |
[176] | 3 | DC microgrid | SPS | TDA | Feedforward + PI voltage controller | Low | Moderate | 10 | 400, 400, 49 | 20 | 2018 |
[75] | 10 | Differential power processing | SPS | TDA | PI voltage controller | Moderate | Low | 0.03 | 5 for all | 100 | 2019 |
[166] | 3 | Energy router | GPS | GHA | Feedforward + Multi-loop PI controllers | Moderate | Moderate | . | . | . | 2023 |
Ref. | N | App | M | Model | Control Approach | Decoupling Performance | Control Structure | Complexity | P [kW] | V [v] | f [kHz] | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[22] | 3 | MEA | SPS | TDA | MPC | High | D | High | . | 50, 70 60 | 50 | 2023 |
[86] | 4 | . | SPS | TDA | SMC+ feedforward | High | C | High | 0.7 | 180, 48 48, 48 | 100 | 2022 |
[78] | 4 | . | SPS | TDA | MPC | High | C | High | . | . | . | 2022 |
[43] | 4 | SST | SPS+ duty cycle | TDA | MPC | High | C | High | . | . | . | 2022 |
[84] | 4 | ESS & RES integration | SPS | TDA | ADRC | High | D | Moderate | 2 | 200 for all | 100 | 2021 |
[60] | 4 | UPQC | SPS | TDA | STA | High | D | high | 1.4 | 150 for all | 100 | 2022 |
[98] | 3 | HESS | SPS | TDA | Flatness Control | Moderate | C | high | 1 | 60, 13, 60 | 10 | 2011 |
[35] | 12 | SST for locomotive traction | GPS | TDA | Off-line Newton Iteration + multi-loop controllers | Moderate | C | High | 6 | 16∼25 | 20 | 2016 |
[163] | 3 | RES and ESS integration | SPS | FCA | NSS | Moderate | C | High | 20 | . | 1 | 2019 |
[21] | 4 | MEA | SPS | TDA | Hybrid NN + linearized model | Moderate | C | Moderate | . | . | . | 2022 |
[91] | 6 | . | SPS | Model- free | Machine learning | High | C | Moderate | 0.05 | 12 for all | 0.5 | 2023 |
[161] | 3 | DC electric springs | SPS | TDA | Feedforward +adaptive droop control | Moderate | C | High | . | . | . | 2019 |
[24] | 3 | MEA | SPS | TDA | Feedforward + droop control | Moderate | C | Moderate | 2 | 200 | 20 | 2017 |
[52] | 4 | SST | SPS+ duty cycle | TDA | Online calculation | Moderate | C | High | 20 | 200∼ 400 | 100 | 2019 |
[96] | 3 | . | SPS | GHA | Online calculation | High | C | High | . | . | 20 | 2020 |
[97] | 3 | DC microgrid | SPS | TDA | Online calculation | Moderate | C | High | 150, 75, 50 | 2023 | ||
[100] | 3 | Grid forming | SPS + frequency control | FCA | Adaptive frequency control | Moderate | D | Moderate | 1 | 100 for all | 20 | 2022 |
[13] | 3 | HESS | SPS | TDA | Multi-loop adaptive + droop control | Low | C | High | 0.5 | 48, 48, 250 | 50 | 2023 |
[85] | 4 | . | GPS | FCA | Adaptive perturb & observe + feedforward | Moderate | C | Moderate | . | 100 | 2.5 | 2022 |
[179] | 3 | . | SPS | TDA | Adaptive frequency control | Low | D | Moderate | 0.5 | 100 for all | 20 | 2022 |
[99] | 3 | . | GPS | Model- free | NN-based + feedforward | High | C | Moderate | 5 | 400 | 40 | 2023 |
Ref. | N | App | M | Decoupling Approach | N Switches | HFT | N Inductor | N Capacitor | P [kW] | V [v] | f [kHz] | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | 3 | Integration of HVDC, AC grid and ESS | GPS | Modified inductance | 16 | 3- windings | 5 (3 for filter) | 3 (for filter) | . | 141, 48, 380 | . | 2018 |
[87] | 4 | . | SPS | Modified inductance | 16 | 4- windings | 7 (4 for filter) | 4 (for filter) | 2 | 160 for all | 100 | 2021 |
[107] | 3 | . | SPS | Modified inductance | 12 | 3- windings | 2 | 3 (for filter) | 2 | 200,100, 100 | . | 2022 |
[88] | 4 | . | SPS | Modified inductance | 18 | 4- windings | 3 | 4 (for filter) | . | . | . | 2023 |
[182] | 3 | . | SPS | Modified inductance | 12 | 3- windings | . | 3 (for filter) | . | 50,50, 70 | 20 | 2021 |
[188] | 3 | . | SPS | Multiple- resonant (for 2 ports) | 12 | 3- windings | 4 | 7 (3 for filter) | 0.75 | 230, 92, 115 | 95 | 2018 |
[71] | 3 | RES and HESS integration | SPS | Resonant | 10 | 3- windings | 3 | 4 (3 for filter) | 0.3 | 12, 24, 110 | 40 | 2019 |
[105] | 3 | ESS | FHS- PWM | FHS-PWM +Resonant | 12 | 3- windings | 4 | 5 (3 for filter) | 1 | 110 for all | 100 | 2021 |
[101] | 3 | . | SPS + duty cycle | Resonant | 12 | 3- windings | 7 (4 for filter) | 6 (3 for filter) | 1 | 200, 120, 150 | 50 | 2022 |
[102] | 3 | . | GPS | Resonant | 12 | 3- windings | 3 | 3 (1 for filter) | 2 | 60, 150, 60 | 50 | 2022 |
[103] | 3 | RES | SPS | Resonant | 8 | 3- windings | 2 | 8 (2 for resonant) | 0.74 | 400, 60, 200 | 50 | 2022 |
[8] | 3 | . | SPS + duty cycle | Resonant | 12 | 33- windings | 6 (4 for filter) | 4 (2 for filter) | . | 60, 72, 200 | 50 | 2022 |
[46] | 4 | SST | SPS | Resonant + PR controllers | 16 | 4- windings | 3 | 7 (4 for filter) | 2 | 380 | 16 | 2022 |
[190] | 3 | HESS in EVs | SPS + duty Cycle | Resonant + feedforward | 12 | 3- windings | 2 | 5 (3 for filter) | 6 | 14,46, 800 | 10 | 2022 |
[6] | 3 | HESS | GPS | Variable resonant | 16 | 3- windings | 3 | 6 | 1.5 | 62,72, 110 | 50 | 2022 |
[12] | 4 | HESS | SPS + duty Cycle | Variable resonant | 16 | 4- windings | 4 (variable inductors) | 8 | 15 | . | 200 | 2023 |
[104] | 3 | RES and HESS integration | GPS | Resonant (Immittance network) | 12 | 3- windings | 4 | 5 (3 filter) | 1 | 96, 72, 300 | 100 | 2022 |
[80] | 4 | EV charger | SPS + duty cycle | Resonant + separated HFTs | 16 | Triple HFT | 3 | 7 (4 for filter) | 2 | 400 | 120 | 2022 |
[189] | 3 | RES | SPS | Negative inductance emulation | 12 | 3- windings | 3 | 3 for filter | 2.6 | 50, 100, 170 | 1 | 2013 |
[109] | 3 | . | SPS + duty cycle | Separated HFTs | 14 | Dual HFT | 0 | 3 | . | 40∼60 for all | 15 | 2017 |
[108] | 3 | RES | SPS | Separated HFTs | 10 | Dual HFT | 0 | 5 (1 for filter) | 1 | 48, 230, 300 | 20 | 2022 |
[30] | 3 | Bipolar DC system | SPS + duty cycle | Separated HFTs | 8 | Dual HFTs | 0 | 5 | 2 | 380 | 50 | 2022 |
[37] | 3 | SST | SPS | Separated HFTs | 12 | Dual HFT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 70, 70, 100 | 20 | 2021 |
[131] | 3 | HESS | SPS | Resonant | 12 | 3- windings | 2 | 5 (3 for filter) | 1 | 85, 100, 200 | 20 | 2017 |
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Koohi, P.; Watson, A.J.; Clare, J.C.; Soeiro, T.B.; Wheeler, P.W. A Survey on Multi-Active Bridge DC-DC Converters: Power Flow Decoupling Techniques, Applications, and Challenges. Energies 2023, 16, 5927. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16165927
Koohi P, Watson AJ, Clare JC, Soeiro TB, Wheeler PW. A Survey on Multi-Active Bridge DC-DC Converters: Power Flow Decoupling Techniques, Applications, and Challenges. Energies. 2023; 16(16):5927. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16165927
Chicago/Turabian StyleKoohi, Peyman, Alan J. Watson, Jon C. Clare, Thiago Batista Soeiro, and Patrick W. Wheeler. 2023. "A Survey on Multi-Active Bridge DC-DC Converters: Power Flow Decoupling Techniques, Applications, and Challenges" Energies 16, no. 16: 5927. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16165927
APA StyleKoohi, P., Watson, A. J., Clare, J. C., Soeiro, T. B., & Wheeler, P. W. (2023). A Survey on Multi-Active Bridge DC-DC Converters: Power Flow Decoupling Techniques, Applications, and Challenges. Energies, 16(16), 5927. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16165927