Numerical Investigation of a Fuel Cell-Powered Agricultural Tractor
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Case Study Description
2.1. Conventional Diesel Tractor
2.2. Experimental Definition of Mission Profiles
- Driver pedal signal as reference of the desired working speed.
- Engine rotational speed.
- Actual engine load as estimated by the vehicle control unit.
- Vehicle speed.
- PTO activation.
3. Numerical Modeling
3.1. Traditional Diesel Vehicle Numerical Model
- Vehicle dynamics.
- Gearbox and clutch.
- Engine power output and fuel consumption.
- PTO and auxiliaries (AUX) loads.
- a, b, and h represent the relative position of the center of gravity of the vehicle with respect to the front and rear axles.
- m is the tractor mass, g the acceleration of gravity.
- is the road slope angle.
- is the vehicle longitudinal speed.
- is the aerodynamic drag force as , with the air density, the drag coefficient and A the frontal cross-sectional area of the vehicle.
- and are the contact forces between the wheels and the ground on the longitudinal direction (front and rear axle).
- and are the normal contact forces between the wheels and the ground (front and rear axle).
- X is the normalized engine speed: .
- Y is the normalized brake torque: .
- Z is the normalized BSFC: .
- are the polynomial coefficients.
3.2. Hybrid Fuel-Cell/Battery Powertrain Numerical Model
3.2.1. Fuel-Cell Model
3.2.2. Adduction System Model
3.2.3. Oxygen Adduction System Model
3.2.4. Battery Model
3.2.5. DC–DC Converter Model
4. Numerical Simulations
4.1. Powertrain Control Strategy
- Max current during continuous discharging equal to 3C.
- Max current during instantaneous discharging equal to 5C.
- Max current during continuous charging equal to C.
- Max current during instantaneous charging equal to 1.5C.
4.2. Simulations Results
4.2.1. Acceleration Test
4.2.2. Work Cycle Simulation
4.2.3. GHG Emission Comparison
5. Conclusions
- Fuel cells produce no harmful products at the exhaust; the only chemical by-product of the reaction between and is water.
- Fuel cell-powered vehicles can be refueled with hydrogen in a few minutes, as traditional diesel vehicles.
- The fuel-cell/battery powertrain was able to accomplish the same tasks as the traditional vehicle.
- The fuel-cell/battery powertrain showed peak power performance very close to the traditional vehicle.
- Compared to diesel-powered agricultural tractors and considering the actual state-of-the-art hydrogen production methods, the fuel-cell/battery powertrain showed a reduction of about 50% of the equivalent emissions accomplishing the same tasks, according to a WtW approach.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Vehicle Properties | |
---|---|
Mass | 2571 kg |
Vehicle wheelbase | 1900 mm |
Track width | 1850 mm |
Wheel radius | 680 mm |
Nominal power | 73 kW @ 2600 rpm |
Top speed | 42 km/h |
Electric Motor Properties | |
---|---|
Rated power | 75 kW @ 2600 rpm |
Rated torque | 258 Nm |
Maximum efficiency | 94% |
Parameters | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|
Number of cells | 360 | - |
Cell active area | 220 | cm2 |
Membrane thickness | 100 | m |
Anode gas diffusion layer thickness | 200 | m |
Cathode gas diffusion layer thickness | 200 | m |
Exchange current density | A/cm2 | |
Max current density | 1.4 | A/cm2 |
Charge transfer coefficient | 0.5 | - |
Density of dry membrane | 2000 | kg/m3 |
Equivalent weight of dry membrane | 1.1 | kg/mol |
Battery Pack Properties | |
---|---|
Nominal open circuit voltage | 240 V |
Nominal capacity | 6 kWh |
Ohmic resistance | 0.3 |
30 s | |
3000 s |
Emission Source | WtW Emission Factor | Unit |
---|---|---|
Diesel | 3.18 | kg -eq./L |
9.13 | kg -eq./kg |
Sprayer Work Cycle | Weeder Work Cycle | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Diesel | Hydrogen | Diesel | Hydrogen | |
Fuel consumption | 5.35 L | 1.049 kg | 4.58 L | 0.714 kg |
kg equivalent | 17.02 | 9.58 | 14.56 | 6.52 |
Difference eq. | −44% | −55% |
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Martini, V.; Mocera, F.; Somà, A. Numerical Investigation of a Fuel Cell-Powered Agricultural Tractor. Energies 2022, 15, 8818. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238818
Martini V, Mocera F, Somà A. Numerical Investigation of a Fuel Cell-Powered Agricultural Tractor. Energies. 2022; 15(23):8818. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238818
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartini, Valerio, Francesco Mocera, and Aurelio Somà. 2022. "Numerical Investigation of a Fuel Cell-Powered Agricultural Tractor" Energies 15, no. 23: 8818. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238818
APA StyleMartini, V., Mocera, F., & Somà, A. (2022). Numerical Investigation of a Fuel Cell-Powered Agricultural Tractor. Energies, 15(23), 8818. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238818