1. Introduction
Currently, the primary energy sources are fossil fuels, such as coal, crude oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy, which account for about 80% of global annual energy consumption [
1]. These energy sources are expected to run out in the next 40 to 50 years. In addition to the fact that they are polluting, these fossil sources cannot easily be replaced by natural means at a rate fast enough to keep up with consumption. Hence, it is imperative to find and use alternative energy sources. Renewable energy sources, derived from natural sources or processes that are constantly renewed, include wind energy, solar energy (thermal, photovoltaic, and concentrated), hydro energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, ambient heat captured by heat pumps, and biomass. The search for alternative energy sources that can meet the needs of the world’s population, which are usually met by hydrocarbons, has shifted the research focus not only to new sources such as solar, hydro, or nuclear energy, but also to the reuse of waste materials from other processes such as feedstock for biomass applications. Biomass refers to any organic waste or material, and mainly plant waste is used for energy purposes [
2].
Biomass is an abundant and a continuously available resource; it was the dominant source of energy long before fossil fuels, but in recent years it has been reintegrated into large-scale bioenergy supply [
3]. Bioenergy is derived from a wide range of raw materials, including agricultural residues, dedicated energy crops, wood processing residues, algae, the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, and food waste.
Biomass is promoted as one of the few energy sources with a carbon footprint close to zero, because, although burning biomass generates CO
2 emissions, during their growth the plants absorb CO
2 from the atmosphere [
4].
Direct conversion of biomass, such as combustion, and indirect conversion methods, such as pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction, are methods of obtaining compounds that can be used as fuels [
5]. Biomass conversion techniques have become a rapidly growing branch of science, and a technology aimed at meeting ever-increasing energy demand while reducing CO
2 emissions by 70–90% [
6].
The use of biomass as feedstock for biofuels production is often seen as a way to bridge the growing gap between energy demand and supply, especially given the finite nature of non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels [
7].
Biomass, which includes agricultural residues, accounts for about two-thirds of all potential renewable energy sources in Turkey [
8], a country with vast agricultural production areas that offer enormous potential for renewable energy. Turkey’s energy consumption has increased rapidly due to its growing population and its status as a developing country.
Turkey is one of the most important greenhouse centers in the world. The total greenhouse area in Turkey is 77,210 ha, of which 7811 ha are under glass, and 69,399 ha are under plastic [
9]. In Turkey, greenhouses are used for growing tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant. On a wet basis, the annual amount of biomass waste generated in greenhouses from the cultivation of tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant is about 1690 thousand tons, and on a dry basis, 253 thousand tons [
10]. Although greenhouses in Turkey produce huge amounts of agricultural waste every year, it is burned, disposed of from the greenhouses, or ground into the greenhouse soil [
11].
Biomass waste, especially agricultural residues, is a durable feedstock for biofuels, with a minimal impact on food security [
12]. However, its high moisture content and low bulk density are the main drawbacks in conversion technologies [
13,
14]. However, biomass properties can be improved by increasing its density, which can facilitate storage and transportation as well as the ability or capacity to generate energy by applying a modest amount of energy [
7].
Bio-briquetting consists of the densification or compaction of solid biomass (discarded or secondary and referred to as waste in industrial and agricultural production processes) under high pressure [
15], and high temperature, with or without binders [
16]. Bio-briquetting is one of the most efficient methods to valorize biomass waste, by which a low-cost, environmentally friendly, renewable, and certified solid biofuel called bio-briquette is obtained. Compared to the raw biomass, the bio-briquettes are characterized by increased bulk density, uniform shapes (usually cylindrical or rectangular) and sizes (diameter between 25 and 100 mm and length between 10 and 400 mm) [
17], low moisture content, higher energy content, and improved combustion characteristics [
18,
19]. This method of biomass valorization can also drastically reduce the storage and transport costs of biomass waste, and contributes to environmental sustainability because it avoids the decomposition of biomass waste and the generation of greenhouse gases. The waste generated from briquetting is further recycled into the bioeconomy, reducing Turkey’s dependence on imported energy.
Bio-briquettes are usually used for domestic heating, and co-firing with coal in heat and power generation centers or thermal power plants. In addition, the briquettes obtained by agricultural enterprises from their greenhouse waste are high in quality and suitable for use instead of fossil fuels in greenhouse heating.
As a result of the literature studies, it was found that the grinding and crushing process required for briquetting biomass is carried out in two different machines, and the ground material is then processed into briquettes using immobile, screw, piston, or hydraulic press technologies with an electric motor.
Hazelnut residues [
1], a mixture of rice husks and pine sawdust [
2], vineyard wastes [
16], tea waste [
20,
21], wood processing residues (sawdust, mulch and wood crisps) [
22], woody and herbaceous biomass blends [
23], lignite mixed with woody waste [
24], sawdust and rapeseed cake [
25], palm kernel fibers [
26], cotton and sesame stalks [
27], various greenhouse plant wastes [
28], straws, reed and hemp stalks [
29], cotton stalks [
30], reed species as energy crops [
31], sunflower stalks [
32], various energy crops (
Salix viminalis,
Miscanthus sinensis,
Rosa multiflora,
Polygonum sachalinensis,
Helianthus tuberosus,
Sida hermaphrodita and
Spartina pectinata) [
33], kiwi cuttings [
34], corn stalks [
35], sugarcane bagasse and straws [
36], were previously briquetted in hydraulic presses, piston or conical screw presses with electric motor drive under different briquetting pressures, particle sizes or moisture contents, in order to valorize biomass waste as solid biofuels and contribute to environmental sustainability.
The objective of this study was to bio-briquette the biomass waste of pepper, tomato, and eggplant crops grown in greenhouse, using a prototype of power take-off (PTO)-driven mobile hydraulic piston briquetting machine, and to evaluate the quality of the bio-briquettes as solid fuel. The processes of shredding, grinding, and briquetting were carried out on site in a single machine without having to transport the dried waste from place to place.
4. Conclusions
The main objective of the present study was to determine whether the prototype mobile briquette machine and waste from high production value vegetables such as tomatoes, eggplant, and peppers can be used to produce organic briquettes. The results obtained in the tests we carried out showed that the briquetted biomass with the briquette machine prototype has very good characteristics, so they can be used as solid biofuel. Additionally, in the production of the briquette, the briquetting machines working with an electric motor are generally used. As an energy dependent country, the use of electricity in the commercial production of biomass briquettes is controversial. However, using the mobile hydraulic briquetting machine, which takes its movement from the tractor, which is designed and manufactured, briquettes can be produced at much lower cost without the need for electricity consumption.
The durability and breaking strength of the briquettes were found to be quite high. The moisture content and particle size were found to be quite suitable for briquetting. The materials are compacted to a density about 5–6 times higher. Selected mechanical and physical characteristics of the briquettes, including compressive strength, longevity, and density, were assessed. The evaluated physico-mechanical characteristics of the generated briquettes were strongly impacted by modifications in the densification process parameter. The water resistance of the briquettes was found to be quite durable up to a certain period of time, and they were also found to have a longer shelf life than when they were first produced if well packaged. To be used as solid biofuels, briquettes must meet the requirements set out in the technical standard ISO 17225. Tests results showed that the briquettes obtained with the prototype briquetting machine meet these standards, and they are quite robust.
In general, all measurements and tests performed within the present research provided satisfactory results, and hence, the use of greenhouse wastes (tomato, pepper, and eggplant) and the prototype mobile briquette machine for the production of bio-briquettes is highly recommended. This study will be an exemplary application for the design studies of prototype machines that will use different briquetting techniques in the future.
Briquetting surplus agricultural waste for use as solid biofuel may help close the world’s energy gap and fight global warming. Additionally, by encouraging the development of new, agricultural-based enterprises, the use of agricultural waste as an alternative energy source can help to increase employment in agricultural communities. In addition to improving the quality and quantity of scientific data, further research is necessary to draw public attention to the energy potential of agricultural waste.
This research is also expected to contribute to a better understanding of waste management principles, briquetting technology, and the use of all types of biomass waste to create ecologically acceptable solid biofuels.