Urban and Extra-Urban Hybrid Vehicles: A Technological Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- It is dangerous. In 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined transport as “a first class medical drama” that causes over 3000 deaths per day and affects 90% of the world’s poorest countries (those with a lower degree of motorized transport);
- Motorized transport excludes other modes of transport. It has difficulties tolerating pedestrians, cyclists, and public transport and forces them to protect themselves (construction of sidewalks, bike paths, green areas) or to retreat underground (subway).
- Motorized transport model space in favor of sparsely populated cities is very scattered. The most obvious example is that of West Coast American cities (with a population density lower than 25 people per hectare and a consumption for transport which is more than 1.5 toe/inhabitant). On the other extreme are Asian cities, exemplified by Hong Kong (with a density of almost 350 inhabitants per hectare and a consumption of 0.1 toe/inhabitant).
- Transport 36% (2/3 due to wheeled transportation);
- Industry 26%;
- Civil industry 17%;
- Agriculture 11%.
- Transport inefficiencies costing, globally, between 1 and 2 trillion $ per year;
- That congestion is responsible for, approximately, 1% (100 billion) of GDP in developed economies.
2. Electric Vehicles (EVs) & Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) Definition
2.1. Briefly Electric Vehicle Description
2.2. Hybrid Vehicles
- 1
- Series
- 2
- Parallel
- 3
- Combined
2.2.1. Series Hybrid
- (a)
- Generate the electricity to power the electric motor;
- (b)
- Recharge the batteries.
2.2.2. Parallel Hybrid
2.2.3. Combined Hybrid
2.2.4. Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Passenger Sedans, Sports Cars, City Cars
2.2.5. Electric/Hybrid Buses in the Public Transport
2.2.6. Other Hybrid Electric Vehicles
2.3. Degree of Hybridization
3. Hybrid Vehicles: Operative Description
- A small heat engine that delivers a small power with low pollutant emissions, but delivers very uninteresting performance during extra-urban missions.
- A larger internal combustion engine suitable for extra-urban and highway missions, but certainly not economically advantageous in urban cycles, with high consumption and emissions.
3.1. HV Powertrain Control and Management
- Fuel consumption minimization;
- Fuel economy;
- Emissions minimization;
- Good drivability;
- Minimum system cost.
3.2. Energy Management
- Rule-Based (RB)
- Optimization-Based (OB)
3.3. The Rule-Based Control Strategy
3.3.1. Deterministic Approach
3.3.2. Fuzzy Rule Method
- Robustness: the logic is tolerant of imprecise measurements and component variation
- Adaptation: since the fuzzy rules can be easily adjusted [53]
3.3.3. Optimization-Based Control Strategy
3.3.4. Global Optimization
3.3.5. Real Time Optimization
3.4. Controller Units
3.5. Regenerative Braking Control Strategy
4. System Components
4.1. Battery Packages
- By the thermal engine;
- By a plug-in charging station;
- By KERS.
- The battery cell voltage:E = 3.2 + 0.3 SOC in chargingE = 3.2 + 0.3 SOC in charging
- Maximum current for battery package fast charging:Imax,in = C1 (1 − SOC)
- Battery power.PBP,max,in = V·Imax,inV = ncell (3.2 + 0.3 SOC)PBP,max,in = ncell (3.2 + 0.3 SOC) C1 (1 − SOC)
4.2. Ultracapacitors
- High/low temperature utilization
- Long life
- Low weight
- PB free/ecofriendly
- Low recharge times
- Endless number of cycles
- Limited overall dimensions
4.3. Flywheels
- Adjusting the output power (as in ICEs)
- Accumulate energy
- Delivering energy (in the HV the braking energy can be collected by a flywheel, which uses it to recharge the battery package)
4.4. Fuel Cells
4.5. Electric Motors
- high torque for starting operation;
- low speed hill climbing operation;
- high power density for acceleration;
- high speed cruising for highway;
- high efficiency over wide torque and speed range;
- suitability for regenerative braking;
- over load capability during certain period of time;
- controllability;
- high reliability;
- robustness;
- affordable costs;
- fault tolerant capability;
- minimum torque ripple;
- temperature management;
- low acoustic noise.
4.5.1. DC Motors
4.5.2. Induction Motors
- simplicity;
- high reliability;
- robustness;
- wide speed range;
- low maintenance;
- low torque ripple/noise;
- low cost;
- established power electronic converters;
- the ability to operate in hostile environments.
- high losses;
- poor power factor;
- low efficiency;
- low inverter usage;
- greater weight and volume.
4.5.3. Permanent Magnet Motors
- highly efficient operation;
- compact packaging;
- reliability;
- maintenance free operation;
- effective heat dissipation.
- torque density;
- flux weakening capability;
- over load capability;
- stator iron losses;
- rotor eddy current losses;
- demagnetization withstanding capability.
- overall operational efficiency
- wide speed,
- constant power operation.
4.5.4. Switched Reluctance Motors
- no magnet rotor
- robust construction
- excellent torque–speed characteristics
- fault tolerant capability,
- constant power region can be extended up to 3–7 times,
- smooth operation mode
- hazard free operation.
- high acoustic noise,
- vibrations,
- high torque ripple,
- complex control mechanism
- requirement of special converter topology.
4.6. Thermal Engines
4.6.1. ICE Engines
4.6.2. GT Devices
- Specific consumption (Off-Design) [kg/kWh]:
- Instant ct consumption [kg/s]:
- Total consumption [kg/mission]:
- Total consumption [kg/km]:
- Total consumption [km/L]:
- Total specific consumption [g/kWh]:
5. Selection of the Optimal Configuration
5.1. Simulation Details
5.2. Driving Cycles and Vehicle Characteristics
5.3. Simulations Results
5.4. Component Packaging
6. Final Remarks and Future Trends
- Advantages
- Minimization of fuel consumption: thanks to its structure, in pure electro-traction mode the HV can be considered a “zero emission vehicle”. In the hybrid operation (both series and parallel) it significantly reduces the energy and fuel consumption.
- Financial benefits: Actually, in some countries, many incentives are promoted for the purchase of an EHV.
- KERS regenerative braking system: during vehicle braking, the KERS device helps to recharge the battery. An internal mechanism is capable of capturing the released energy and uses it to charge the battery. A significant aspect is the reduction of recharging time.
- Lighter materials: hybrid electric vehicles are made of lighter materials that means lower required energy. The engine/motor is also smaller, lighter, and cheaper.
- Drawbacks
- Lower Power: In the HV two engines are considered, and depending on the configuration, the thermal engine (which can be the prime mover in parallel hybrids or a range extender in series ones) is smaller than standard commercial ones. Sometimes, for the “city/urban driving”, the combined power available is lower than that of a commercial vehicle.
- Cost: at present, HVs cost is up to 15,000/18,000 €, more than a standard commercial version. However, in time that extra amount can be reduced with lower running cost and restrictions.
- Higher Maintenance Costs: the components used are high tech devices, consequently, expert and skilled “mechanics” and dedicated spare parts are required.
- Safety Issues: In case of a crash, the high voltage present inside the batteries can be dangerous or even lethal for the driver (as F1 driver Alonso can confirm).
- Assisting batteries during transient hard states;
- Increasing battery life;
- Decreasing the size of the battery packs;
- Offering performance independent of battery status;
- Increasing the power availability, and, consequently, the autonomy of the vehicle;
- Improving the energy efficiency through regenerative braking.
7. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
AC | Alternate Current |
AFC | Alkaline Fuel Cell |
b | Vehicle width |
BMU | Battery Management Unit |
BP | Battery package |
cx | Drag coefficient |
C | Coefficient |
C | Torque [N∙m] |
DC | Direct Current |
DSCU | Drive System Control Unit |
DTC | Drive Torque Control |
EBSCU | Electronic Braking System Control Unit |
E | Energy [J] |
ECE | European Cycle Evaluation |
EDLC | Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitor |
EM | Electric Motor |
EMR | Energetic Macroscopic Representative |
EUDC | Extra Urban Drive Cycle |
EV | Electric Vehicle |
EVCU | Electric Vehicle Control Unit |
FCEV | Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle |
FCV | Fuel Cell Vehicle |
FOC | Field Orientated Control |
GT | Gas Turbine set |
GTHV | Gas Turbine Hybrid Vehicle |
H | Vehicle height |
HD | Hybridization Degree |
HEV | Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
HPP | Hybrid power pack |
HV | Hybrid vehicle |
ICE | Internal Combustion Engine |
ISG | Integrated Starter Generator |
KERS | Kinetic Energy Recover System |
LHV | Low Heating Value [J/kg] |
m | Mass [kg/s] |
MCFC | Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell |
MTBF | Mean Time Before Failure |
OB | Optimization Based |
P | Power [W] |
Pb | Lead |
PAFC | Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell |
PEM | Proton Exchange Membrane |
PEMFC | Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell |
PHEB | Plug-in Hybrid Electric Boat |
PHEV | Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
PM | Permanent Magnet |
r | Radius [m] |
R | Resistance |
RB | Rule Based |
R&D | Research and Development |
SAPHT | Solar Assist Plug-in Hybrid Electric Tractor |
SOC | State of Charge |
SOFC | Solid Oxide Fuel Cell |
T | Temperature [K] |
UCU | Ultra capacitor Control Unit |
UDDS | Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule |
V | Voltage [V] |
VCU | Vehicle Control Unit |
VMU | Vehicle Management Unit |
WVU | West Virginia University |
ZEV | Zero emission Electric Vehicle |
Subscripts | |
GT | Gas Turbine |
nom | nominal |
Greek Symbol | |
α | area ratio |
δ | density [kg/m3] |
ω | angular velocity [rad/s] |
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Normative/Directive | Carbon Oxide CO | Hydrocarbons HC | Nitrogen Oxide NOx | Combined HC + NOx | Particulate Matter PM | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gasoline | Diesel | Gasoline | Diesel | Gasoline | Diesel | Gasoline | Diesel | Diesel | |
91/441-1992 (EURO 1) | 2.72 | 2.72 | - | - | - | - | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.14 |
94/12-1996 (EURO 2) | 2.20 | 1.00 | - | - | - | - | 0.50 | 0.70 | 0.08 |
98/69A-2000 (EURO 3) | 2.30 | 0.64 | 0.20 | - | 0.15 | 0.50 | - | 0.56 | 0.05 |
98/69B-2005 (EURO 4) | 1.00 | 0.50 | 0.10 | - | 0.8 | 0.25 | - | 0.30 | 0.025 |
715/2007-2011 (EURO 5) | 1.00 | 0.50 | 0.10 | - | 0.6 | 0.18 | - | 0.23 | 0.005 |
715/2007-2015 (EURO 6) | 1.00 | 0.50 | 0.10 | - | 0.6 | 08 | - | 0.17 | 0.005 |
Systems Characteristics/Type of Vehicle | EV | HEV |
---|---|---|
Propulsion | Electric motors | Electric motor Thermal engine |
Energy storage | Battery package Ultracapacitors | Battery package Ultracapacitors Fuel tank |
Energy source infrastructure | Electric grid | Electric grid Commercial gas station |
Characteristics | Zero emissions High efficiency Relatively short range Fuel independence High cost Commercial availability | Low emissions Relatively high fuel economy Extended range High cost Commercial availability Partial fossil fuel independence |
Issues | Battery package overall dimensions and weight Battery MBTF Charging stationsCost | Battery package overall dimensions, weight, and management Energy fluxes control, management, and optimization |
Features | Optimized power plant |
Modular power plant possibilities | |
Long operational life | |
Excellent transient response | |
Engine down sizing | |
Advantageous packaging | |
Possibility of Zero Emissions Operation Mode | |
System complexity | |
Drawbacks | Larger traction drive system |
Multiple Energy conversions | |
Optimized design of algorithms | |
High investment cost | |
Larger traction drive system | |
Applications | City cars/passenger sedan/urban and extra urban bus |
Features Drawbacks | Economic gain at high cost |
Possibility of Zero Emissions Operation Mode | |
System complexity | |
Expensive system | |
Complexity of control system | |
Complex volume packaging | |
Optimized design of algorithms | |
High voltage required to improve efficiency | |
Applications | Bus/heavy truck |
Chemistry | Nominal Operative Voltage [V] N.O.V | Energy Density [Wh/kg] | Cycle Life | Self-Discharge Rate [%/Month] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lead-Acid | 2 | 30–40 | 500–200 | 3–20 |
Ni-Mh | 1.2 | 65–70 | 500–800 | 30 |
Li-ion | 3.7 | 100–150 | 1000–1200 | 8 |
LiPo | 3.7 | 130–200 | 800–1200 | 5 |
LiFePO4 | 3.2 | 90–160 | 1500–3000 | <3 |
LiTi | 2.3 | 70–100 | ≥4000 | <3 |
Module Mass mmod | 19.1 kg |
Module Voltage Vmod | 12.8 V |
Cell Voltage Vcel | 3.2 V |
Specific Power Psp | 201 W/kg |
Specific Energy Esp | 67 Wh/kg |
Battery Capacity C | 100 Ah |
Maximum Current Cmax | 450 A |
Charging Time [s] | 0.3–30 |
Discharging Time [s] | 0.3–30 |
Energy Density [Wh/kg] | 1–10 |
Power Density [W/kg] | <10,000 |
MTBF | >500,000 |
Efficiency [%] | 85–97 |
Flywheel Purpose, Type | Geometric Shape Factor [k] | Mass [kg] | Diameter [m] | Angular Velocity [rpm] | Energy Store [MJ] | Energy Stored [kWh] | Energy Density [kWh/kg] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Small battery | 0.5 | 100 | 0.6 | 20,000 | 9.8 | 2.7 | 0.027 |
Regenerative braking (trains) | 0.5 | 3000 | 0.5 | 8000 | 33 | 9.1 | 0.003 |
Electric power backup | 0.5 | 600 | 0.5 | 30,000 | 92 | 26 | 0.043 |
Characteristic | PEMFC | AFC | PAFC | MCFC | SOFC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electrolyte | Perfluorosulfonic acid | Phosphoric acid | Phosphoric acid | Molten carbonate | Solid oxide |
Design and structure | Simple | Simple | Simpler | Complex | Complex |
Temperature range [°C] | 50 ÷ 100 | 80 ÷ 100 | 150 ÷ 200 | 600 ÷ 700 | 700 ÷ 1000 |
Starting up time | Lower | Low | Low | High | Higher |
Stack size [kW] | <1 ÷ 100 | 10 ÷ 100 | 100 ÷ 400 | 300 kW ÷ 3 MW <300 MW | 1 ÷ 2 MW |
Sensitivity | More | Low | Low | Lower | Lower |
Efficiency [%] | 40 ÷ 60 | 50 ÷ 60 | 40 ÷ 50 | 45 ÷ 60 | 50 ÷ 65 |
Cell-life | 2 ÷ 10 μV/h | 0 ÷ 6 μV/h | 2 ÷ 4 μV/h | 5 μV/h | 0 ÷ 8 μV/h |
Characteristics | Battery | Ultracapacitor | Fuel Cell | Flywheel |
---|---|---|---|---|
Physics | Chemical | Electrostatic | Chemical | Mechanical |
Technology | Proven | Promising | Promising | Proven |
Energy density | High | Low | Very high | Low |
Power density | Low | Very high | Medium | High |
Charging time | Hours | Seconds | n.a. | Minutes |
Discharging time | Hours | Seconds | n.a. | Minutes |
MTBF | 3–5 years | > 10 years | 10,000–20,000 h | >20 years |
Efficiency [%] | 75–85 | 85–95 | 40–60 | 80–90 |
Environmental issue | Disposal | Low | Very low | Very low |
Commutator | No Commutator | ||
---|---|---|---|
Self ExcitedDC Motors | Separately Excited DC Motors | Induction Motors | Synchronous Motors |
Series | PM excited | Cage rotor | PM motors |
Shunt | Field excited | Wound rotor | SR motors |
Characteristics | Commutator Motors | No Commutator Motors | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Induction Motor | PM Motor | SR Motor | ||
Controllability | 5 | 5 | 4 | 3 |
Size and weight | 3 | 4 | 4.5 | 4 |
Robustness | 3.5 | 5 | 4 | 4.5 |
Reliability | 3 | 5 | 4 | 4.5 |
Power density | 3 | 4 | 5 | 3.5 |
Efficiency | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4.5 |
Speed range | 2.5 | 4 | 5 | 5 |
Life time | 3.5 | 5 | 4 | 4.5 |
Torque density | 3 | 3.5 | 5 | 4 |
Technical maturity | 5 | 4.5 | 4 | 3.5 |
Cost | 3.5 | 5 | 3 | 4 |
Over load capability | 3 | 4 | 4.5 | 4 |
Torque ripple/noise | 3.5 | 4.5 | 4 | 3 |
Manufacturability | 3 | 5 | 3 | 4 |
Potential for improvements | 2.5 | 3 | 4.5 | 5 |
City CAR Specifications | |
Rolling radius | r = 0.25 m |
Shape coefficient | f = 0.82 |
Actual frontal section | Sf = 1.152 m2 |
Drag coefficient | cx = 0.27 |
Rolling coefficient | f = 0.015 |
Vehicle mass | m = 980 kg |
Equivalent vehicle mass | me = 1210 kg |
Gravity | g = 9.81 m/s2 |
Air density | ρ = 1.180 kg/m3 |
Minimum SOC | 0.4 |
Maximum SOC | 0.8 |
SEDAN CAR Specifications | |
Rolling radius | r = 0.25 m |
Shape coefficient | f = 0.9 |
Actual frontal section | Sf = 2.142 m2 |
Drag coefficient | cx = 0.25 |
Rolling coefficient | f = 0.015 |
Vehicle mass | m = 1200 kg |
Equivalent vehicle mass | me = 1240 kg |
Gravity | g = 9.81 m/s2 |
Air density | ρ = 1.180 kg/m3 |
Minimum SOC | 0.6 (safety 0.4) |
Maximum SOC | 0.8 |
BUS Specifications | |
Rolling radius | r = 0.46 m |
Shape coefficient | f = 0.87 |
Actual frontal section | Sf = 6.9 m2 |
Drag coefficient | cx = 0.6 |
Rolling coefficient | f = 0.018 |
Vehicle mass | m = 7500 kg |
Equivalent vehicle mass | me = 13300 kg |
Gravity | g = 9.81 m/s2 |
Air density | ρ = 1.180 kg/m3 |
Minimum SOC | 0.42 |
Maximum SOC | 0.8 |
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Capata, R. Urban and Extra-Urban Hybrid Vehicles: A Technological Review. Energies 2018, 11, 2924. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112924
Capata R. Urban and Extra-Urban Hybrid Vehicles: A Technological Review. Energies. 2018; 11(11):2924. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112924
Chicago/Turabian StyleCapata, Roberto. 2018. "Urban and Extra-Urban Hybrid Vehicles: A Technological Review" Energies 11, no. 11: 2924. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112924
APA StyleCapata, R. (2018). Urban and Extra-Urban Hybrid Vehicles: A Technological Review. Energies, 11(11), 2924. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112924