Predictors of Indoor Air Concentrations in Smoking and Non-Smoking Residences
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Questionnaires
2.3. Passive Samplers
2.4. Active Samplers
2.5. Continuous Measurements
2.6. Air Exchange Rate
2.7. Fixed-Site Monitors
2.8. Quality Assurance
2.9. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Air Pollutant Measurements
3.3. Data Quality
3.4. Predictors for Indoor Levels
3.4.1. VOC (Benzene and toluene)
3.4.2. Formaldehyde
3.4.3. Acetaldehyde
3.4.4. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)
3.4.5. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
3.5. Design Considerations
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References and Notes
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Summer | Winter | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Non-smoking Homes (N=96) | All Homes (N=111) | Non-smoking Homes (N=85) | All Homes (N=106) | |
Home year of construction ≤ 1953 | 13 (14%) | 18 (16%) | 13 (15%) | 18 (17%) |
1954–1963 | 29 (30%) | 32 (29%) | 26 (31%) | 31 (29%) |
1964–1977 | 15 (16%) | 19 (17%) | 17 (20%) | 22 (21%) |
1978–1999 | 30 (31%) | 33 (30%) | 22 (26%) | 28 (26%) |
≥ 2000 | 9 (9%) | 9 (8%) | 6 (7%) | 6 (6%) |
New furniture or rugs within the last year | 34 (35%) | 39 (35%) | 34 (40%) | 39 (37%) |
Garage attached to home | 49 (51%) | 55 (50%) | 32 (38%) | 43 (41%) |
Premium filter on furnace | 35 (36%) | 42 (38%) | 26 (31%) | 29 (27%) |
Air conditioner used | 47 (49%) | 53 (48%) | - | - |
Outdoor vented kitchen fan | 31 (32%) | 35 (32%) | 26 (31%) | 32 (30%) |
Gas stove | 33 (34%) | 36 (32%) | 5 (6%) | 7 (7%) |
Cooked with oil (fry, grill, sauté, or broil) | 34 (35%) | 37 (33%) | 35 (41%) | 44 (42%) |
BBQ used | 14 (15%) | 16 (14%) | - | - |
Windows open | 65 (68%) | 78 (70%) | 12 (14%) | 20 (19%) |
Candles burned | 4 (4%) | 6 (5%) | 5 (6%) | 9 (8%) |
Perfume, cologne, or aftershave used | 32 (33%) | 39 (35%) | 41 (48%) | 54 (51%) |
Hair spray used | 38 (40%) | 42 (38%) | 37 (44%) | 43 (41%) |
Summer | Winter | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Min | Max | Mean | Stda | Geo.b Mean | Geo.b Std. | N | Min | Max | Mean | Stda | Geo.b Mean | Geo.b Std. | ||
Benzene (μg/m3) | All homes | 105 | 0.18 | 32.33 | 2.72 | 5.03 | 1.28 | 2.99 | 105 | 0.53 | 17.87 | 2.06 | 2.73 | 1.44 | 2.08 |
Non-smoking | 91 | 0.18 | 32.33 | 2.66 | 5.22 | 1.19 | 3.01 | 84 | 0.53 | 17.87 | 1.85 | 2.67 | 1.31 | 1.99 | |
Outside | 108 | 0.07 | 6.04 | 0.34 | 0.57 | 0.26 | 1.85 | 94 | 0.32 | 2.75 | 0.75 | 0.48 | 0.66 | 1.58 | |
Toluene (μg/m3) | All homes | 105 | 0.77 | 314.8 | 23.54 | 44.48 | 11.26 | 2.97 | 105 | 0.02 | 625.2 | 21.33 | 76.85 | 8.40 | 3.01 |
Non-smoking | 91 | 0.77 | 314.8 | 24.76 | 46.98 | 11.62 | 3.02 | 84 | 0.02 | 497.5 | 16.40 | 54.18 | 7.89 | 2.92 | |
Outside | 108 | 0.17 | 61.93 | 1.94 | 6.01 | 1.01 | 2.47 | 94 | 0.23 | 14.82 | 1.66 | 2.25 | 1.08 | 2.27 | |
Acetaldehyde (μg/m3) | All homes | 111 | 0.49 | 48.80 | 12.69 | 8.63 | 10.10 | 2.09 | 104 | 0.49 | 94.20 | 12.58 | 11.05 | 9.74 | 2.11 |
Non-smoking | 96 | 0.49 | 48.80 | 12.44 | 8.64 | 9.85 | 2.12 | 83 | 0.49 | 32.15 | 10.68 | 6.37 | 8.70 | 2.05 | |
Formaldehyde (μg/m3) | All homes | 111 | 5.09 | 93.88 | 35.46 | 17.93 | 31.08 | 1.72 | 104 | 7.46 | 72.48 | 25.73 | 11.52 | 23.39 | 1.56 |
Non-smoking | 96 | 5.09 | 93.88 | 36.82 | 18.60 | 32.12 | 1.75 | 83 | 7.46 | 72.48 | 26.33 | 12.12 | 23.83 | 1.58 | |
Acrolein (μg/m3) | All homes | 111 | 0.44 | 6.81 | 1.35 | 0.99 | 1.05 | 2.04 | 104 | 0.46 | 3.26 | 0.69 | 0.54 | 0.60 | 1.58 |
Non-smoking | 96 | 0.44 | 3.89 | 1.24 | 0.80 | 1.00 | 1.97 | 83 | 0.46 | 3.23 | 0.59 | 0.38 | 0.54 | 1.39 | |
PM2.5 (μg/m3) | All homes | 105 | 1.00 | 82.09 | 9.51 | 12.21 | 6.43 | 2.21 | 95 | 0.88 | 92.12 | 9.42 | 13.46 | 5.46 | 2.61 |
Non-smoking | 91 | 1.00 | 24.92 | 6.18 | 3.56 | 5.32 | 1.75 | 76 | 0.88 | 27.61 | 5.47 | 4.95 | 4.13 | 2.05 | |
Outside | 102 | 2.22 | 14.43 | 7.67 | 2.68 | 7.25 | 1.40 | 95 | 0.20 | 10.81 | 6.68 | 1.99 | 6.24 | 1.58 | |
Elemental carbon (μg/m3) | All homes | 51 | 0.20 | 0.74 | 0.25 | 0.09 | 0.24 | 1.26 | |||||||
Non-smoking | 46 | 0.20 | 0.49 | 0.24 | 0.05 | 0.24 | 1.18 | ||||||||
Outside | 45 | 0.20 | 0.57 | 0.27 | 0.09 | 0.26 | 1.30 | ||||||||
NO2 (μg/m3) | All homes | 110 | 1.52 | 84.32 | 11.32 | 10.97 | 8.51 | 2.09 | |||||||
Non-smoking | 96 | 1.52 | 53.80 | 10.28 | 8.22 | 8.00 | 2.05 | ||||||||
Outside | 111 | 0.16 | 32.04 | 6.90 | 4.76 | 5.43 | 2.16 | ||||||||
O3 (μg/m3) | All homes | 110 | 0.00 | 9.03 | 1.34 | 1.54 | 0.12 | 51.55 | |||||||
Non-smoking | 96 | 0.00 | 9.03 | 1.31 | 1.58 | 0.09 | 60.80 | ||||||||
Outside | 110 | 5.24 | 16.60 | 10.57 | 2.59 | 10.25 | 1.29 |
Summer | Winter | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent variable | Estimate (β) | Standard error | p-value | Independent variable | Estimate | Standard error | p-value |
Benzene (Natural logarithm of concentrations in μg/m3) | |||||||
All homes N = 101 | R2 = 0.43 | All homes N = 91 | R2 = 0.49 | ||||
Intercept | 0.666 | 0.554 | 0.232 | Intercept | −0.386 | 0.125 | 0.003 |
Average indoor RH | −0.021 | 0.012 | 0.089 | Outdoor benzene | 0.468 | 0.120 | <0.001 |
Air conditioning used | 0.408 | 0.183 | 0.028 | Attached garage | 0.860 | 0.116 | <0.001 |
Windows open | −0.393 | 0.201 | 0.053 | Smoking inside | 0.709 | 0.160 | <0.001 |
Attached garage | 1.058 | 0.177 | <.001 | ||||
Non-smoking homes N = 75 | R2 = 0.52 | ||||||
Intercept | −0.437 | 0.118 | <0.001 | ||||
Outdoor benzene | 0.371 | 0.114 | 0.002 | ||||
Attached garage | 0.852 | 0.120 | <0.001 | ||||
Hair spray used | 0.301 | 0.122 | 0.016 | ||||
Toluene (Natural logarithm of concentrations in μg/m3) | |||||||
All homes N = 101 | R2 = 0.39 | All homes N = 104 | R2 = 0.21 | ||||
Intercept | 3.181 | 0.580 | <0.001 | Intercept | 2.523 | 0.414 | <0.001 |
New furniture or rugsa | 0.513 | 0.183 | 0.006 | Construction year (reference group = ≥ 2000) | <0.001b | ||
Attached garage | 0.704 | 0.184 | <0.001 | ≤ 1953 | −1.014 | 0.478 | 0.036 |
Windows open | −0.589 | 0.209 | 0.006 | 1954–1963 | −0.472 | 0.452 | 0.298 |
Average indoor RH | −0.026 | 0.013 | 0.041 | 1964–1977 | −0.718 | 0.467 | 0.127 |
Air conditioning used | 0.375 | 0.192 | 0.054 | 1978–1999 | 0.309 | 0.457 | 0.501 |
Formaldehyde (Natural logarithm of concentrations in μg/m3) | |||||||
All homes N = 107 | R2 = 0.36 | All homes N = 72 | R2 = 0.49 | ||||
Intercept | Intercept | 1.677 | 0.438 | <0.001 | |||
Air conditioning used | 0.245 | 0.094 | 0.011 | Average indoor RH | 0.020 | 0.005 | <0.001 |
Open windows | −0.326 | 0.103 | 0.002 | Average temperature | 0.065 | 0.017 | <0.001 |
Vented kitchen fan | 0.199 | 0.097 | 0.043 | Air exchanges/hour | −0.237 | 0.106 | 0.030 |
Construction year (reference group = ≥ 2000) | 0.007b | Construction year (reference group = ≥ 2000) | 0.001b | ||||
≤ 1953 | −0.099 | 0.200 | 0.621 | ≤ 1953 | −0.500 | 0.193 | 0.012 |
1954–1963 | −0.436 | 0.184 | 0.020 | 1954–1963 | −0.415 | 0.170 | 0.017 |
1964–1977 | −0.150 | 0.201 | 0.459 | 1964–1977 | −0.223 | 0.173 | 0.202 |
1978–1999 | −0.028 | 0.182 | 0.877 | 1978–1999 | −0.037 | 0.167 | 0.826 |
Acetaldehyde (Natural logarithm of concentrations in μg/m3) | |||||||
All homes N = 107 | R2 = 0.32 | All homes N = 72 | R2 = 0.29 | ||||
Intercept | 2.205 | 0.154 | <0.001 | Intercept | 1.554 | 0.275 | <0.001 |
Windows open | −0.377 | 0.140 | 0.008 | Air exchanges/hour | −0.377 | 0.199 | 0.063 |
Air conditioning used | 0.597 | 0.128 | <0.001 | Average indoor RH | 0.029 | 0.010 | 0.006 |
Perfume usedb | 0.249 | 0.126 | 0.051 | Cooked with oil | 0.299 | 0.165 | 0.074 |
Smoking inside | 0.661 | 0.224 | 0.004 | ||||
Non-smoking homes | N = 58 | R2 = 0.32 | |||||
Intercept | 1.625 | 0.347 | <0.001 | ||||
Air exchanges/hour | −0.830 | 0.377 | 0.032 | ||||
Average indoor RH | 0.032 | 0.012 | 0.007 | ||||
Cooked with oil | 0.289 | 0.171 | 0.096 | ||||
PM2.5 (Natural logarithm of concentrations in μg/m3) | |||||||
All homes N = 101 | R2 = 0.53 | All homes N = 87 | R2 = 0.37 | ||||
Intercept | 1.253 | 0.174 | <0.001 | Intercept | 1.012 | 0.310 | 0.002 |
PM2.5 outdoors | 0.036 | 0.021 | 0.086 | PM2.5 outdoors | 0.111 | 0.044 | 0.014 |
BBQ used | 0.284 | 0.109 | 0.011 | Vented kitchen fan | −0.593 | 0.185 | 0.002 |
Number of cig. smoked | 0.022 | 0.002 | <0.001 | Number of cig. smoked | 0.017 | 0.003 | <0.001 |
Non-smoking homes N = 91 | R2 = 0.11 | Non-smoking homes N = 59 | R2 = 0.37 | ||||
Intercept | 1.606 | 0.088 | <0.001 | Intercept | 0.147 | 0.353 | 0.679 |
BBQ used | 0.304 | 0.112 | 0.008 | PM2.5 outdoors (μg/m3) | 0.076 | 0.040 | 0.061 |
Premium furnace filter | −0.255 | 0.118 | 0.034 | Vented kitchen fan | −0.267 | 0.153 | 0.088 |
Average indoor RH | 0.034 | 0.009 | <0.001 | ||||
Candles used | 0.486 | 0.172 | 0.007 | ||||
NO2 (Natural logarithm of concentrations in μg/m3) | |||||||
All homes N = 109 | R2 = 0.44 | ||||||
Intercept | 1.367 | 0.125 | <0.001 | ||||
NO2 outdoors | 0.031 | 0.011 | 0.007 | ||||
Gas stove | 0.836 | 0.115 | <0.001 | ||||
Smoking inside | 0.487 | 0.169 | 0.005 | ||||
Windows open | 0.307 | 0.120 | 0.012 | ||||
Non-smoking homes N=95 | R2 = 0.36 | ||||||
Intercept | 1.399 | 0.141 | <0.001 | ||||
NO2 outdoors (ppb) | 0.029 | 0.014 | 0.044 | ||||
Gas stove | 0.793 | 0.125 | <0.001 | ||||
Windows open | 0.298 | 0.127 | 0.025 |
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Héroux, M.-E.; Clark, N.; Ryswyk, K.V.; Mallick, R.; Gilbert, N.L.; Harrison, I.; Rispler, K.; Wang, D.; Anastassopoulos, A.; Guay, M.; et al. Predictors of Indoor Air Concentrations in Smoking and Non-Smoking Residences. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, 3080-3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7083080
Héroux M-E, Clark N, Ryswyk KV, Mallick R, Gilbert NL, Harrison I, Rispler K, Wang D, Anastassopoulos A, Guay M, et al. Predictors of Indoor Air Concentrations in Smoking and Non-Smoking Residences. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2010; 7(8):3080-3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7083080
Chicago/Turabian StyleHéroux, Marie-Eve, Nina Clark, Keith Van Ryswyk, Ranjeeta Mallick, Nicolas L. Gilbert, Ian Harrison, Kathleen Rispler, Daniel Wang, Angelos Anastassopoulos, Mireille Guay, and et al. 2010. "Predictors of Indoor Air Concentrations in Smoking and Non-Smoking Residences" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 7, no. 8: 3080-3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7083080