State-of-the-Art Review on Removal of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials in Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
2.1. Origin and Sources of Natural Radioactivity
2.2. Physicochemical Characteristics of Radon, Radium, Thorium, and Uranium
2.3. Decay Series of Uranium-238, Thorium-232, and Uranium-235
2.4. Natural Radionuclides in Water
2.5. Radionuclides in Drinking Water Supplies
2.6. Regulatory Framework for Drinking Water Sources
2.7. Regulatory Framework
3. Materials and Methods
4. Techniques for Treating Radionuclides in Water
4.1. Membrane Filtration Technology
4.2. Nanotechnology
4.3. Electrochemical Methods
4.4. Bioremediation
4.5. Permeable Reactive Barrier
4.6. Aeration Technique
4.7. Activated Carbon
4.8. Comparative Costs of the Different Techniques
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material | Reactivity | Solubility | Mobility | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Radon | Chemically inert noble gas. However, its short-lived decay products, like polonium, are chemically reactive and easily attached to aerosols and particulate matter in the air. | Not soluble in water as a gas. Its decay products, mainly polonium-210, may be soluble, deposited on surfaces, or dissolved in water. | Easily dispersed in the gaseous state and can penetrate through different materials such as soil and construction. Its mobility is influenced mainly by diffusion and pressure gradients in the soil or building materials. | [8,9,10,11] |
Radium | A reactive chemical element within the alkaline earth group that can combine with other elements to form a chemical compound [5]. Its reactivity varies with the chemical form and or condition in which the chemical is present. | Generally insoluble in water at neutral pH levels. It dissolves well in water at ordinary temperatures, except in cases where the pH is low or the salinity is high [6]. | Exists as a free phase in the environment, often in groundwater. Radium mobility can be affected by factors such as the acidity level, temperature, and other chemicals in the water or soil. | [12,13] |
Thorium | It is capable of actively combining with other elements to form a compound. It also has variable oxidation states and reacts with oxygen, acids, and other chemical reagents. | Its solubility may fluctuate based on the type of form, including in the diet and other situations that characterize one’s environment. Like most elements, thorium can form both insoluble and soluble compounds with water. | Very mobile in some settings, particularly in an acidic environment. Its mobility in groundwater and surface water can contaminate soil and water sources. | [14,15] |
Uranium | React with other elements and can exist in different oxidation states. It is most relevant in the areas of nuclear energy and pollution. | Solubility of compounds in water can be variable depending on the chemical form and the conditions of the environment. Depending on the pH and redox conditions, uranium can dissolve in water to form soluble and insoluble complexes. | Can be mobile in the environment, especially in groundwater and surface water. Its mobility is influenced by factors such as pH, temperature, and the presence of another chemical. Uranium contamination can also cause the element to be transported over vast distances and affect the environment. | [16,17,18] |
Element | Half-Life | Emitted Radiation |
---|---|---|
Uranium-238 | 4.468 billion years | Alpha |
Thorium-234 | 24.1 days | Beta |
Protactinium-234 | 1.17 min | Beta |
Uranium-234 | 245,500 years | Alpha |
Thorium-230 | 75,380 years | Alpha |
Radium-226 | 1600 years | Alpha |
Radon-222 | 3.823 days | Alpha |
Polonium-218 | 3.05 min | Alpha |
Lead-214 | 26.8 min | Beta |
Bismuth-214 | 19.9 min | Beta |
Polonium-214 | 164 microseconds | Alpha |
Lead-210 | 22.2 years | Beta |
Bismuth-210 | 5102 days | Beta |
Polonium-210 | 138 days | Alpha |
Lead-206 (stable) | N/A | N/A |
Element | Half-Life | Emitted Radiation |
---|---|---|
Thorium-232 | 14.05 billion years | Alpha |
Radium-228 | 5.75 years | Beta |
Actinium-228 | 6.13 h | Beta |
Thorium-228 | 1.913 years | Alpha |
Radium-224 | 3.62 days | Alpha |
Radon-222 | 55.62 s | Alpha |
Polonium-216 | 0.146 s | Alpha |
Lead-212 | 10.463 h | Beta |
Bismuth-212 | 60.55 min | Alpha, Beta |
Polonium-212 | 0.298 microseconds | Alpha |
Thallium-208 | 3.053 min | Beta |
Lead-208 (stable) | N/A | N/A |
Element | Half-Life | Emitted Radiation |
---|---|---|
Uranium-235 | 0.71 billion years | Alpha |
Thorium-231 | 25.6 h | Beta |
Protactinium-231 | 33,000 years | Alpha |
Actinium-227 | 22 years | Alpha, Beta |
Thorium-227 | 18.2 days | Alpha |
Francium-223 | 22 min | Beta |
Radium-223 | 11.7 days | Alpha |
Rodon-219 | 3.9 s | Alpha |
Polonium-215 | 1.8 microseconds | Alpha, Beta |
Lead-211 | 36 min | Beta |
Astatine-215 | 1.8 milliseconds | Alpha |
Bismuth-211 | 2.16 min | Alpha, Beta |
Thallium-207 | 4.8 min | Beta |
Polonium-211 | 0.52 s | Beta |
Lead-207(stable) | - | - |
United States | |
---|---|
Radionuclides | Maximum Contaminant Level 1 |
Combined Radium-226 and Radium-228 | 185 Bq/m3 |
Gross Alpha (excluding 222Rn and uranium) | 555 Bq/m3 |
Uranium | 0.372 Bq/m3 |
Europe | |
Parameter | Parametric Value 2 |
Tritium | 100,000 Bq/m3 |
Rn-222 | 100,000 Bq/m3 |
Indicative Dose | 0.1 mSv |
Nuclide | Derived Concentration 3 |
Radium-226 | 500 Bq/m3 |
Radium-228 | 200 Bq/m3 |
Lead-210 | 200 Bq/m3 |
Uranium-234 | 2800 Bq/m3 |
Uranium-238 | 3000 Bq/m3 |
Polonium-210 | 100 Bq/m3 |
Jordan | |
Radioactive Material | Standard level 4 |
Alpha Particles (excluding Rn-222) * | 500 Bq/m3 |
Beta Particles (excluding Carbon-14 and Tritium) ** | 1000 Bq/m3 |
Treatment Technique | Removal Techniques | Removal Efficiency |
---|---|---|
Radium | Coagulation/filtration | 65–95% |
Membrane processes | 90–99% | |
Lime softening | 80–95% | |
Uranium | Coagulation/filtration | 80–95% |
Lime softening | 85–99% | |
Membrane processes | 90–99% | |
Radon | Aeration system | 70–99% |
Packed tower | 90–99% | |
Granular activated carbon | 80–99% |
Stage | Component | Function |
---|---|---|
1 | Pre-filter, spun-bounded polypropylene | Removes suspended impurities like particles of rust and dust |
2 | Pre-carbon filter, silver-impregnated granular-activated carbon | Removes color, odor, and free chlorine and absorbs organics and pesticides |
3 | Sediment filter, spun PP cartridge | Acts as a final filter to remove smaller contaminants and remaining particles. Reduces fine turbidity |
4 | Reverse osmosis membrane thin-film composite (TFC) ~0.0001 micron | Removes TDS, hardness, fluoride, pesticides, heavy metals like lead, mercury, cadmium, uranium, and arsenic, etc., and micro-organisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoan cysts |
5 | Post-carbon filter, silver-impregnated fine granular-activated carbon | Imparts bacteriostatic property and helps in reviving the original taste of water |
Feature | Graphene Oxide (GO) Membranes | Membrane Technology (RO) |
---|---|---|
Mechanism | Size-sieving, tunable ion separation | Pressure-driven separation, size, and charge exclusion |
Selectivity | High, tunable | Lower |
Water Flux | High in some cases | Generally lower than GO membranes |
Energy Consumption | Potentially lower | Can be high |
Fouling | Prone to fouling | Prone to fouling |
Applications | Separation of radionuclides in complex mixtures and highly acidic or saline conditions | Treatment of radionuclide-containing wastewater, water purification |
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Al-Shomali, Z.; Pereira, A.; Marques, A.C.; Dinis, M.d.L. State-of-the-Art Review on Removal of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials in Water. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22050727
Al-Shomali Z, Pereira A, Marques AC, Dinis MdL. State-of-the-Art Review on Removal of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials in Water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(5):727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22050727
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Shomali, Zaid, Alcides Pereira, Ana Clara Marques, and Maria de Lurdes Dinis. 2025. "State-of-the-Art Review on Removal of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials in Water" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 5: 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22050727
APA StyleAl-Shomali, Z., Pereira, A., Marques, A. C., & Dinis, M. d. L. (2025). State-of-the-Art Review on Removal of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials in Water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(5), 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22050727