Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Assessments Across the Rural and Urban Areas of Nepal: A Scoping Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Protocol and Registration
2.2. Review Question
2.3. Search Strategy
2.4. Information Sources (Databases)
2.5. Eligibility Criteria
2.6. Selection of Sources of Evidence
2.7. Data Charting Process
2.8. Data Items
2.9. Synthesis of Results
3. Results
3.1. Selection of Sources of Evidence
3.2. Characteristics of the Included Studies
3.2.1. Overview of Studies
Location
Water Sources
Water Usage
3.2.2. Overview of Contaminants in Studies by Province
| Authors | Location | Water Usage | Multiple Contaminants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aryal, 2022 [83] | Non specified | Drinking | E. coli, coliforms, metals, trace elements |
| Aryal et al., 2012 [82] | Urban and rural | Arsenic and total coliforms | |
| Bhandari et al., 2021 [87] | Urban | Chloride, copper, nitrate, sulfate, E. coli, Citrobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., Proteus spp., Enterobacter spp., Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Pseudomonas | |
| Bittner et al., 2002 [95] | Urban and rural | Arsenic and total coliforms | |
| Burlakoti et al., 2020 [22] | Urban | Fluoride, ammonia, E. coli, and total coliforms | |
| Guragai et al., 2017 [110] | Urban | Iron, manganese, ammonia, chlorine, and E. coli | |
| Merz et al., 2004 [146] | Non specified | Fecal coliform, phosphate, nitrate | |
| Moravek et al., 2019 [147] | Non specified | Total coliforms, E. coli, Giardia, Salmonella, Shigella, nitrate, ammonia, and total phosphorus | |
| Pant 2011 [27] | Urban | Chloride, iron, arsenic, fluoride, and total coliforms | |
| Pradhan et al., 2005 [165] | Rural | E. coli, total coliforms, pH, iron, chlorine, total hardness, chloride, nitrogen, ammonia, phosphate, phosphorus, and fluoride. | |
| Poudel & Basi-Chipalu 2022 [160] | Urban | Chloride, nitrate, iron, total coliforms, Salmonella, Shigella, and Vibrio | |
| Pradhan et al., 2022 [166] | Non specified | Ammonia, nitrate, chloride, fluoride, calcium, E. coli, and total coliforms | |
| Sarkar et al., 2022 [30] | Urban | Total and fecal coliforms, aluminum, arsenic, barium, beryllium, boron, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, fluoride, iron, mercury, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, lead, antimony, selenium, thallium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc | |
| Subedi et al., 2017 [190] | Urban and rural | Fecal coliforms, ammonia, nitrate, chloride, and nitrite | |
| Subedi et al., 2012 [188] | Urban | Nitrate, calcium, iron, and fecal coliforms | |
| Tamrakar et al., 2017 [192] | Urban | Calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, total ammonia, sodium, potassium, fluoride, arsenic, aluminum, total chlorides, total chlorine, and fecal coliforms | |
| Thapa et al., 2019 [197] | Urban | Calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and total coliforms | |
| Warner et al., 2008 [203] | Urban | Total coliforms, E. coli, nitrate, ammonia, heavy metals, arsenic, mercury, iron, sulphate, phosphate, and manganese | |
| Ghimire 1985 [106] | Urban | Non specified | Calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, silica, chloride, phosphate, nitrogen, ammonia, coliforms, and E. coli |
| Pantha et al., 2022 [28] | Non specified | Fecal coliforms, ammonia, nitrate, and calcium | |
| Khadka 1993 [126] | Urban | E. coli, total coliforms, ammonia, orthophosphate, chloride, iron, and manganese | |
| Khadka et al., 2015 [128] | Urban | E. coli, phosphate, chloride, and sulphate | |
| Poudel et al., 2021 [164] | Urban and rural | E. coli, total coliforms, ammonia, phosphate, chloride, iron, and nitrate | |
| Ghimire et al., 2023 [108] | Urban | Both drinking and irrigation | Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, nitrate, ammonium, iron, phosphate, sulphate, and total coliforms |
| Ghimire et al., 2023 [109] | Urban | Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, phosphate, sulphate, chloride, bicarbonate, nitrate, iron, and total coliforms |
Bagmati Province
Gandaki Province
Karnali Province
Koshi Province
Lumbini Province
Madhesh Province
Sudurpaschim Province
Multiple Provinces
Unspecified Provinces
3.2.3. Synthesis of Results
3.2.4. Recommendations Proposed by the Included Studies
4. Discussion
4.1. Water Quality Evaluation in Nepal Provinces
4.2. Predominant Health Concerns Identified in the Included Studies
4.3. Research Gaps Identified and Proposed Recommendations
4.4. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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| Theme | Recommendations | Studies |
|---|---|---|
| Water Treatment and Disinfection |
| Bhandari et al., 2021 [87]; Kannel et al., 2007 [122]; Shrestha et al., 2003 [180]; Shrestha et al., 2016 [182]; Shrestha & Shakya, 2021 [177] |
| Infrastructure Improvement |
| Baker et al., 2011 [85]; Dumaru et al., 2021 [101]; Inoue et al., 2015 [26] |
| Water Quality Monitoring |
| Bhatta et al., 2007 [93]; Maharjan et al., 2006 [135]; Malla et al., 2018 [140]; Nicholson et al., 2023 [150]; Pant et al., 2021 [152]; Pant et al., 2020 [157] |
| Health Education and Awareness |
| Aryal et al., 2012 [82]; Maharjan et al., 2005 [137]; Shrestha et al., 2016 [182]; Warner et al., 2008 [203] |
| Policy and Management |
| Aryal et al., 2012 [82]; Bhatta et al., 2007 [93]; Khatiwada et al., 2002 [129]; Shrestha et al., 2018 [178]; Warner et al., 2008 [203] |
| Further Research and Studies |
| Bhetwal et al., 2017 [94]; Kafle et al., 2023 [118]; Sharma et al., 2021 [211]; Thakur et al., 2015 [196]; Thapa et al., 2019 [197]; Warner et al., 2008 [203] |
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Chattopadhyay, S.; Choiniere, A.; Tchangalova, N.; Acharya, Y.; Sapkota, A.R.; Malayil, L. Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Assessments Across the Rural and Urban Areas of Nepal: A Scoping Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 1526. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22101526
Chattopadhyay S, Choiniere A, Tchangalova N, Acharya Y, Sapkota AR, Malayil L. Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Assessments Across the Rural and Urban Areas of Nepal: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(10):1526. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22101526
Chicago/Turabian StyleChattopadhyay, Suhana, Alex Choiniere, Nedelina Tchangalova, Yunika Acharya, Amy R. Sapkota, and Leena Malayil. 2025. "Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Assessments Across the Rural and Urban Areas of Nepal: A Scoping Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 10: 1526. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22101526
APA StyleChattopadhyay, S., Choiniere, A., Tchangalova, N., Acharya, Y., Sapkota, A. R., & Malayil, L. (2025). Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Assessments Across the Rural and Urban Areas of Nepal: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(10), 1526. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22101526

