Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened or Artificially Sweetened Beverages and Semen Quality in Young Men: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Sugar-Sweetened and Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption
2.3. Semen Quality Measurement
2.4. Co-Variates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Ethical Approval
3. Results
3.1. Study Participants
3.2. Beverage Consumption and Semen Quality
3.3. Associations between Exposure and Outcome
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings
4.2. Strength and Limitations
4.3. Interpretation of Results Compared to Existing Literature
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Participants’ Characteristics (2017–2019) | Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption a | Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption a | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
<3 Days a Week | ≥3 Days a Week | <3 Days a Week | ≥3 Days a Week | |
Candy intake | ||||
<3 days a week | 658 (63) | 199 (19) | 769 (73) | 88 (8) |
≥3 days a week | 99 (9) | 91 (9) | 165 (16) | 25 (3) |
Cake intake | ||||
<3 days a week | 689 (66) | 246 (24) | 841(80) | 94 (9) |
≥3 days a week | 68 (6) | 44 (4) | 93 (9) | 19 (2) |
Cocoa intake | ||||
Less than weekly | 587 (56) | 203 (19) | 709 (68) | 79 (8) |
Weekly | 172 (17) | 87 (8) | 225 (21) | 34 (3) |
Energy drink intake | ||||
<3 days a week | 734 (70) | 234 (22) | 876 (84) | 92 (9) |
≥3 days a week | 23 (3) | 56 (5) | 58 (5) | 21 (2) |
Coffee intake | ||||
<3 days a week | 303 (35) | 142 (17) | 394 (46) | 51 (6) |
≥3 days a week | 323 (37) | 94 (11) | 373 (43) | 44 (5) |
Smoking status | ||||
Yes | 267 (26) | 146 (14) | 357 (34) | 56 (5) |
No | 144 (14) | 490 (46) | 577 (56) | 57 (5) |
Body Mass Index | ||||
Underweight | 53 (5) | 25 (3) | 72 (7) | 6 (1) |
Normal weight | 571 (54) | 203 (19) | 701 (67) | 73 (7) |
Overweight | 133 (13) | 62 (6) | 161 (15) | 34 (3) |
Spillage | ||||
Yes | 132 (12) | 50 (5) | 160 (15) | 22 (2) |
No | 620 (60) | 239 (23) | 770 (74) | 89 (9) |
Abstinence time | ||||
<2 h | 256 (25) | 107 (10) | 326 (31) | 37 (4) |
2–4 h | 388 (37) | 158 (15) | 482 (46) | 64 (6) |
>4 h | 113 (11) | 25 (2) | 126 (12) | 12 (1) |
Fever | ||||
Yes | 102 (10) | 36 (3) | 121 (12) | 17 (2) |
No | 570 (54) | 215 (21) | 705 (67) | 80 (7) |
Don’t know | 85 (8) | 39 (4) | 108 (10) | 16 (2) |
Time to analysis | ||||
<60 min | 562 (54) | 216 (21) | 690 (66) | 88 (8) |
≥60 min | 188 (18) | 72 (7) | 236 (24) | 24 (2) |
Maternal Characteristics (1997–2000) | ||||
Maternal smoking status | ||||
Yes | 155 (15) | 88 (8) | 214 (20) | 29 (3) |
No | 602 (58) | 202 (19) | 720 (69) | 84 (8) |
Maternal Body Mass Index | ||||
Underweight | 69 (7) | 28 (3) | 92 (8) | 6 (1) |
Normal weight | 525 (51) | 191 (19) | 647 (63) | 69 (7) |
Overweight | 146 (14) | 63 (6) | 172 (17) | 37 (4) |
Socio Economic Status (highest of parents) | ||||
Student or economically inactive | 42 (4) | 7 (1) | 43 (4) | 0 (0) |
Skilled or unskilled worker | 193 (18) | 106 (10) | 263 (25) | 36 (3) |
Low grade professional | 242 (23) | 102 (10) | 303 (29) | 41 (4) |
High grade professional | 280 (27) | 75 (7) | 320 (32) | 35 (3) |
Semen Parameters (Medians, 5th, 95th Percentiles) b | Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption a | Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption a | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Infrequent (<3 Days a Week) | Moderate (≥3 Days a Week) | N | Infrequent (<3 Days a Week) | Moderate (≥3 Days a Week) | |
Semen volume (mL) | 1047 | 2.7 (1.9, 3.7) | 2.6 (1.8, 3.6) | 1047 | 2.7 (1.9, 3.7) | 2.7 (1.8, 3.6) |
Sperm concentration (mill./mL) | 1047 | 39.7 (18.7, 73.2) | 33.7 (18.8, 68.0) | 1047 | 38.9 (19.0, 72.8) | 34.6 (16.6, 65.3) |
Total motility (A + B%) | 1031 | 73.0 (64.0, 80.0) | 71.4 (63.0, 79.0) | 1031 | 72.3 (63.0, 80.0) | 72.4 (66.8, 80.3) |
Sperm morphology (% normal sperm) | 1026 | 6.0 (0.3, 10.0) | 6.0 (2.9, 10.0) | 1026 | 6.0 (3.0, 10.0) | 6.0 (3.5, 9.7) |
Total sperm count (mill.) | 1047 | 104.2 (47.9, 203.9) | 94.3 (39.4, 180.2) | 1047 | 103.3 (45.8, 202.3) | 96.9 (39.8, 167.4) |
Semen Parameters | Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption Unadjusted | Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption Adjusted | Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption Unadjusted | Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption Adjusted | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude Ratio a | Adjusted Ratio a,b | 95% CI | Crude Ratio a | Adjusted Ratio a,b | 95% CI | |
Semen volume c | 0.97 | 0.99 | (0.91, 1.08) | 1.02 | 1.03 | (0.92, 1.17) |
Sperm concentration | 0.92 | 1.03 | (0.90, 1.19) | 0.89 | 0.96 | (0.81, 1.15) |
Total motility d | 0.99 | 0.98 | (0.95, 1.02) | 1.01 | 1.01 | (0.98, 1.05) |
Sperm morphology (% normal sperm) | 0.99 | 0.99 | (0.87, 1.12) | 0.90 | 0.89 | (0.76, 1.04) |
Total sperm count c | 0.86 | 0.98 | (0.84, 1.15) | 0.89 | 0.99 | (0.81, 1.21) |
Semen Parameters | Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption Adjusted | Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption Adjusted | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ratio a,b | 95% CI | Ratio a,b | 95% CI | |||
Semen volume c | Less than weekly (n = 362) | 1 | Less than weekly (n = 869) | 1 | ||
1–2 days a week (n = 485) | 0.97 | (0.90, 1.05) | 1–2 days a week (n = 171) | 1.04 | (0.95, 1.14) | |
3–4 days a week (n = 208) | 0.94 | (0.84, 1.05) | 3–4 days a week (n = 82) | 1.05 | (0.91, 1.22) | |
5–6 days a week (n = 74) | 1.05 | (0.91, 1.22) | 5–6 days a week (n = 30) | 1.05 | (0.87, 1.26) | |
Every day (n = 38) | 0.98 | (0.81, 1.18) | Every day (n = 15) | 0.82 | (0.56, 1.20) | |
* Continuous | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | * Continuous | 1.01 | (0.98, 1.04) | |
Sperm concentration | Less than weekly (n = 362) | 1 | Less than weekly (n = 869) | 1 | ||
1–2 days a week (n = 485) | 1.02 | (0.89, 1.17) | 1–2 days a week (n = 171) | 1.02 | (0.86, 1.20) | |
3–4 days a week (n = 208) | 1.05 | (0.87, 1.27) | 3–4 days a week (n = 82) | 0.96 | (0.77, 1.20) | |
5–6 days a week (n = 74) | 1.04 | (0.81, 1.33) | 5–6 days a week (n = 30) | 1.03 | (0.78, 1.36) | |
Every day (n = 38) | 0.99 | (0.69, 1.42) | Every day (n = 15) | 0.81 | (0.47, 1.41) | |
* Continuous | 1.00 | (0.97, 1.04) | * Continuous | 0.99 | (0.95, 1.03) | |
Total motility d | Less than weekly (n = 362) | 1 | Less than weekly (n = 869) | 1 | ||
1–2 days a week (n = 485) | 1.00 | (0.97, 1.03) | 1–2 days a week (n = 171) | 1.00 | (0.97, 1.04) | |
3–4 days a week (n = 208) | 0.98 | (0.94, 1.02) | 3–4 days a week (n = 82) | 1.00 | (0.96, 1.05) | |
5–6 days a week (n = 74) | 0.99 | (0.94, 1.04) | 5–6 days a week (n = 30) | 1.03 | (0.98, 1.09) | |
Every day (n = 38) | 0.95 | (0.87, 1.03) | Every day (n = 15) | 1.02 | (0.90, 1.15) | |
* Continuous | 0.99 | (0.99, 1.00) | * Continuous | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.01) | |
Sperm morphology (% normal sperm) | Less than weekly (n = 362) | 1 | Less than weekly (n = 869) | 1 | ||
1–2 days a week (n = 485) | 0.92 | (0.81, 1.05) | 1–2 days a week (n = 171) | 0.93 | (0.81, 1.06) | |
3–4 days a week (n = 208) | 0.95 | (0.80, 1.13) | 3–4 days a week (n = 82) | 0.89 | (0.74, 1.09) | |
5–6 days a week (n = 74) | 0.92 | (0.72, 1.16) | 5–6 days a week (n = 30) | 0.86 | (0.67, 1.11) | |
Every day (n = 38) | 0.92 | (0.68, 1.25) | Every day (n = 15) | 0.86 | (0.50, 1.49) | |
* Continuous | 0.99 | (0.96, 1.02) | * Continuous | 0.97 | (0.93, 1.01) | |
Total sperm count c | Less than weekly (n = 362) | 1 | Less than weekly (n = 869) | 1 | ||
1–2 days a week (n = 485) | 1.08 | (0.93, 1.24) | 1–2 days a week (n = 171) | 0.97 | (0.83, 1.13) | |
3–4 days a week (n = 208) | 1.00 | (0.81, 1.22) | 3–4 days a week (n = 82) | 0.97 | (0.74, 1.26) | |
5–6 days a week (n = 74) | 1.12 | (0.86, 1.45) | 5–6 days a week (n = 30) | 1.08 | (0.82, 1.41) | |
Every day (n = 38) | 0.99 | (0.67, 1.46) | Every day (n = 15) | 0.66 | (0.36, 1.23) | |
* Continuous | 1.00 | (0.96, 1.04) | * Continuous | 0.99 | (0.95, 1.04) |
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Meldgaard, M.; Brix, N.; Gaml-Sørensen, A.; Ernst, A.; Ramlau-Hansen, C.H.; Tøttenborg, S.S.; Hougaard, K.S.; Bonde, J.P.E.; Toft, G. Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened or Artificially Sweetened Beverages and Semen Quality in Young Men: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 682. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020682
Meldgaard M, Brix N, Gaml-Sørensen A, Ernst A, Ramlau-Hansen CH, Tøttenborg SS, Hougaard KS, Bonde JPE, Toft G. Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened or Artificially Sweetened Beverages and Semen Quality in Young Men: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(2):682. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020682
Chicago/Turabian StyleMeldgaard, Maiken, Nis Brix, Anne Gaml-Sørensen, Andreas Ernst, Cecilia Høst Ramlau-Hansen, Sandra Søgaard Tøttenborg, Karin Sørig Hougaard, Jens Peter Ellekilde Bonde, and Gunnar Toft. 2022. "Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened or Artificially Sweetened Beverages and Semen Quality in Young Men: A Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 2: 682. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020682