Challenges and Opportunities in Aligning Conservation with Development in China’s National Parks: A Narrative Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of China’s First Five National Parks
3. Materials and Methods
4. Results
4.1. Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP)
Category | Specific Topic | Number of Papers | Citations |
---|---|---|---|
Ecological priorities | Preserve natural ecosystems | 16 | [18,23,31,32,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47] |
Preserve snow leopard population | 7 | [33,34,37,48,49,50,51] | |
Stakeholders | Local communities | 22 | [18,23,31,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,42,45,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56] |
Private businesses | 5 | [31,36,38,40,41] | |
Tensions | Economic stress from grazing restrictions | 10 | [18,23,31,35,39,45,48,49,52,56] |
Human–carnivore conflict | 7 | [23,37,48,49,50,52,53] | |
Dissatisfaction with eco-migration/eco-compensation policies | 4 | [18,35,39,53] | |
Unsustainable tourism practices | 4 | [36,38,41,46] | |
Ecological damage from road construction | 3 | [34,36,46] | |
Synergies | Positive role of Buddhism | 5 | [23,37,43,49,50] |
Potential of ecotourism | 5 | [31,36,38,41,51] | |
Policy recommendations | Improve compensation schemes | 9 | [18,23,35,39,45,49,52,53,56] |
Invest in cultural tourism and ecotourism | 6 | [31,36,38,39,41,51] | |
Provide residents with diversified income streams | 6 | [23,31,40,49,51,56] | |
Improve environmental education and awareness | 6 | [23,35,38,39,50,56] | |
Help residents protect food and livestock from carnivores | 4 | [23,49,52,53] |
4.2. Wuyishan National Park (WNP)
Category | Specific Topic | Number of Papers | Citations |
---|---|---|---|
Ecological priorities | Preserve forest ecosystems | 11 | [19,26,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65] |
Stakeholders | Local communities | 12 | [19,26,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66] |
Tea industry | 7 | [19,26,57,58,59,60,62] | |
Forestry industry | 3 | [58,60,63] | |
Tourism industry | 3 | [26,59,61] | |
Tensions | Unsustainable tea cultivation practices | 7 | [19,58,59,62,65] |
Unsustainable tourism practices | 4 | [26,61,62,66] | |
Lack of community participation in park | 3 | [63,64,66] | |
Synergies | Strong environmental consciousness of locals | 3 | [26,58,64] |
Economic benefits of conservation | 1 | [62] | |
Policy recommendations | Improve environmental education and awareness | 8 | [19,26,57,58,60,62,65,66] |
Invest in cultural tourism and ecotourism | 3 | [26,62,66] | |
Increase community participation in park | 3 | [63,64,66] | |
Strengthen returning tea to forest (RTTF) programs | 2 | [57,59] |
4.3. Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park (HTRNP)
Category | Specific Topic | Number of Papers | Citations |
---|---|---|---|
Ecological priorities | Preserve rainforest ecosystems | 14 | [4,20,67,68,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80] |
Protect gibbon population | 5 | [69,70,73,81,82] | |
Stakeholders | Local communities | 11 | [20,67,69,70,72,75,76,77,78,81,82,83] |
Private businesses | 9 | [4,68,69,71,73,74,78,79,80] | |
Tensions | Ecological damage from large private industry (rubber, paper, real estate, etc.) | 8 | [4,68,71,73,74,78,79,80] |
Unsustainable tourism practices | 8 | [68,70,71,75,76,77,78,81,82] | |
Ecological damage from individual households | 5 | [20,67,69,72,78,83] | |
Synergies | Positive attitude of locals toward conservation | 4 | [70,78,81,82] |
Policy recommendations | Invest in reforestation programs | 8 | [67,68,69,71,73,74,79,80] |
Impose stricter logging restrictions | 6 | [4,69,71,74,79,80] | |
Improve environmental education and awareness | 5 | [70,75,77,81,82] | |
Require land use reform | 4 | [4,72,78,80,83] | |
Invest in ecotourism | 3 | [76,77,78] |
4.4. Giant Panda National Park (GPNP)
Category | Specific Topic | Number of Papers | Citations |
---|---|---|---|
Ecological priorities | Protect giant panda populations | 33 | [21,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115] |
Protect other vulnerable species | 13 | [85,87,88,89,90,92,93,94,98,111,116,117,118] | |
Prevent land degradation | 11 | [86,95,99,104,105,106,107,109,112,119,120] | |
Stakeholders | Local communities | 24 | [21,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,93,94,95,96,102,103,106,107,108,109,110,112,113,116,119,121] |
Private businesses | 13 | [91,92,95,96,98,99,102,103,104,106,113,119,120] | |
Tensions | Ecological damage from logging, ranching, and agriculture | 24 | [21,84,86,87,91,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,103,104,106,107,108,109,110,112,113,114,115,119,120] |
High cost of conservation for locals | 8 | [21,85,89,90,96,97,116,121] | |
Pollution (air, waste, and heavy metals) | 6 | [91,92,93,100,101,117] | |
Unsustainable tourism practices | 4 | [92,95,113,116] | |
Loss of tradition | 2 | [88,116] | |
Synergies | Potential for ecotourism development | 8 | [85,88,89,90,94,95,116,121] |
Willingness of locals to pay for conservation | 5 | [87,88,93,94,116] | |
Policy recommendations | Restrict grazing, planting, and construction in/around park | 19 | [86,91,92,95,98,100,101,102,103,104,106,107,108,109,112,115,117,119,120] |
Invest in ecotourism and increase tourism regulation | 9 | [84,85,88,89,90,92,95,96,113,116] | |
Improve ecological compensation and migration schemes | 8 | [84,85,88,89,90,94,96,97,121] | |
Streamline local input in park management | 6 | [85,88,93,94,116,121] | |
Expand park boundaries | 3 | [96,114,115] |
4.5. Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park (NTLNP)
Category | Specific Topic | Number of Papers | Citations |
---|---|---|---|
Ecological priorities | Protect Amur tiger and Amur leopard populations | 12 | [122,123,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135] |
Protect other vulnerable species | 8 | [122,126,127,128,129,131,133,134] | |
Prevent wetland degradation | 3 | [124,136,137] | |
Stakeholders | Local communities | 12 | [122,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,135,136,138,139] |
Private businesses | 4 | [126,127,130,136] | |
Tensions | Ecological damage from agriculture, grazing, and related sources | 15 | [124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,134,136,138,140,141,142] |
Economic stress from conservation policies | 4 | [122,127,128,130] | |
Synergies | Availability of labor following state forest reform | 1 | [130] |
Policy recommendations | Restrict livestock grazing in park | 10 | [122,125,127,128,129,131,132,134,138,142] |
Strengthen enforcement of park rules | 9 | [122,124,126,127,128,130,131,136,142] | |
Increase ecological compensation schemes | 9 | [122,124,125,128,129,130,132,136,141] | |
Expand park boundaries | 5 | [122,127,128,129,133,135] |
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Park | Search Terms |
---|---|
Sanjiangyuan National Park | “Sanjiangyuan” AND “Human–carnivore conflict” |
“Sanjiangyuan” AND “Tourism” | |
“Sanjiangyuan” AND “Compensation” | |
“Sanjiangyuan” AND “Anthropogenic” | |
“Sanjiangyuan” AND “Livestock” | |
Wuyishan National Park | “Wuyishan” AND “Tourism” |
“Wuyishan” AND “Tea” | |
“Wuyishan” AND “Community participation” | |
“Wuyishan” AND “Logging” | |
“Wuyi Mountain” OR “Wuyi Mountains” AND “Tourism” | |
“Wuyi Mountain” OR “Wuyi Mountains” AND “Tea” | |
“Wuyi Mountain” OR “Wuyi Mountains” AND “Community participation” | |
“Wuyi Mountain” OR “Wuyi Mountains” AND “Logging” | |
Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park | “Hainan Tropical Rainforest” AND “Tourism” |
“Hainan Tropical Rainforest” AND “Public awareness” | |
“Hainan Tropical Rainforest” AND “Poverty” | |
“Hainan Tropical Rainforest” AND “Logging” | |
“Bawangling” OR “Diaoluoshan” OR “Wuzhishan” AND “Tourism” | |
“Bawangling” OR “Diaoluoshan” OR “Wuzhishan” AND “Public awareness” | |
“Bawangling” OR “Diaoluoshan” OR “Wuzhishan” AND “Poverty” | |
“Bawangling” OR “Diaoluoshan” OR “Wuzhishan” AND “Logging” | |
“Nomascus hainanus” AND “Tourism” | |
“Nomascus hainanus” AND “Public awareness” | |
“Nomascus hainanus” AND “Poverty” | |
“Nomascus hainanus” AND “Logging” | |
Giant Panda National Park | “Giant Panda National Park” AND “Tourism” |
“Giant Panda National Park” AND “Compensation” | |
“Giant Panda National Park” AND “Heavy metals” | |
“Giant Panda National Park” AND “Anthropogenic” | |
“Giant Panda National Park” AND “Livestock” | |
“Wolong Nature Reserve” AND “Tourism” | |
“Wolong Nature Reserve” AND “Compensation” | |
“Wolong Nature Reserve” AND “Heavy metals” | |
“Wolong Nature Reserve” AND Anthropogenic” | |
“Wolong Nature Reserve” AND “Livestock” | |
“Wanglang Nature Reserve” AND “Tourism” | |
“Wanglang Nature Reserve” AND “Compensation” | |
“Wanglang Nature Reserve” AND “Heavy metals” | |
“Wanglang Nature Reserve” AND Anthropogenic” | |
“Wanglang Nature Reserve” AND “Livestock” | |
“Foping Nature Reserve” AND “Tourism” | |
“Foping Nature Reserve” AND “Compensation” | |
“Foping Nature Reserve” AND “Heavy metals” | |
“Foping Nature Reserve” AND Anthropogenic” | |
“Foping Nature Reserve” AND “Livestock” | |
Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park | “Tiger Leopard National Park” OR “Tiger and Leopard National Park” AND “Landscape fragmentation” |
“Tiger Leopard National Park” OR “Tiger and Leopard National Park” AND “Livestock” | |
“Tiger Leopard National Park” OR “Tiger and Leopard National Park” AND “Anthropogenic” | |
“Tiger Leopard National Park” OR “Tiger and Leopard National Park” AND “Tourism” | |
“Amur tiger” OR “Amur leopard” AND “China” AND “Landscape fragmentation” | |
“Amur tiger” OR “Amur leopard” AND “China” AND “Livestock” | |
“Amur tiger” OR “Amur leopard” AND “China” AND “Anthropogenic” | |
“Amur tiger” OR “Amur leopard” AND “China” AND “Tourism” | |
“Hunchun Nature Reserve” AND “Landscape fragmentation” | |
“Hunchun Nature Reserve” AND “Livestock” | |
“Hunchun Nature Reserve” AND “Anthropogenic” | |
“Hunchun Nature Reserve” AND “Tourism” | |
“Tumen River Basin” AND “Landscape fragmentation” | |
“Tumen River Basin” AND “Livestock” | |
“Tumen River Basin” AND “Anthropogenic” | |
“Tumen River Basin” AND “Tourism” |
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Rule, A.; Dill, S.-E.; Sun, G.; Chen, A.; Khawaja, S.; Li, I.; Zhang, V.; Rozelle, S. Challenges and Opportunities in Aligning Conservation with Development in China’s National Parks: A Narrative Literature Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12778. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912778
Rule A, Dill S-E, Sun G, Chen A, Khawaja S, Li I, Zhang V, Rozelle S. Challenges and Opportunities in Aligning Conservation with Development in China’s National Parks: A Narrative Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12778. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912778
Chicago/Turabian StyleRule, Andrew, Sarah-Eve Dill, Gordy Sun, Aidan Chen, Senan Khawaja, Ingrid Li, Vincent Zhang, and Scott Rozelle. 2022. "Challenges and Opportunities in Aligning Conservation with Development in China’s National Parks: A Narrative Literature Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12778. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912778